Africa, Millennium Development Goals Keywords: employment, unemployment, hunger, education

Poverty reduction cannot be achieved without full, productive and decent employment for all. These two issues are closely interrelated and are therefore not accidentally included as separate tasks in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) Declaration.

PROVIDING EMPLOYMENT

The problem of employment has always been acute in Africa. The situation in this area can be described as permanently critical. This is based on a number of factors, the most important of which is a sharp imbalance between the growth of the working - age population and job creation, which is expressed in a huge excess of labor supply over demand. The current situation is also characterized by widespread underemployment, especially in rural areas, increasing rural migration to cities and the expansion of the informal sector, increasing unemployment among educated youth and brain drain, and extreme poverty and inequality.¹

According to recent estimates, the continent still has a high unemployment rate: in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) - 8.2%, in North Africa (SA)-11% (according to unofficial data, this level is two to three times higher). The share of people employed in the informal sector in Tropical Africa ranges from 70 to 80% of the labor force, which is the highest in the world. In addition, the region's "working poor" - those with incomes below $1.25 a day-is the largest in the world, accounting for approximately 60% of the employed population2.

The rapid demographic growth observed in Africa leads, in turn, to an increase in the share of the working-age population, which significantly complicates the situation in the labor market. Thus, the total number of this category in the SSA has increased more than 2 times over the past 30 years, and in the SA - over the past 20 years - by 2.5 times. At the same time, only 5-10% of the total number of new jobs is created in the modern sector of the economy, the vast majority of them are in the informal sector and low - profit agriculture.³ The current conditions, in which the demand for labor in the real sector of the economy is very low or absent at all, and the supply of labor is excessively high, indicate significant imbalances in the development of not only the labor market itself, but also the economy as a whole, which is fraught with serious consequences.

The specific feature of African cities is the expansion of informal employment. The International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates that 72% of the urban workforce in sub-Saharan Africa is informally employed (48% in North Africa, 51% in Latin America and 65% in Asia).⁴. Such a high rate in comparison with other regions is due to the relatively weak development of the modern sector, on the one hand, and the high growth of the urban population, on the other.

Most of the people displaced from agriculture settle primarily in the informal sector: in small-scale trade and service (street vendors, peddlers, shoe cleaners, car washers, etc.). And although these types of work are characterized by low productivity, low and irregular earnings, and lack of social protection, for many Africans When people migrate to cities in search of work, they are essentially the only source of income.

In general, in developing regions, including Africa, the majority of the working population is defined by the ILO as having insecure or vulnerable employment: insecure and unstable jobs in the informal sector. This also applies to unpaid family workers. Unprotected employment implies the absence of employment agreements, social guarantees, low pay and work in dangerous conditions.

Recent global crisis

For the beginning, see: Asia and Africa Today, 2012, N8.

It has led to a marked decline in employment and productivity in all regions of the world, including Africa. Due to job cuts, an increasing number of residents of the continent were forced to accept unsafe and unstable work. According to the ILO, the share of vulnerable people employed in SSA during the crisis increased to 77% in 2009 (compared to 75% in 2008) and still remains almost at the same level (76.6% in 2011). At the same time, the absolute number of them in Tropical Africa increased from 2007 to 2011 by 22 million people.

In North Africa, almost four out of ten people employed in 2011 were either self-employed or employed as unpaid family farm workers, and this was more true for women than for men. Thus, in 2011, the share of unprotected employees among the former reached 85% in the SSA and 55% in the SA (for men-70 and 32%, respectively) ⁵.

As a result of the crisis, the growth of the "working poor" in the SSA countries in 2008-2009 was ⁶% (from 58 to 64%), which was the highest rate in the world6. In North Africa, where this category includes employees with incomes of less than $2 a day, the figure in 2011 was 27.2%^.7 Such an unprecedented high proportion of the" working poor "indicates that they are quite" able-bodied", as well as the formation of an ugly, deformed labor market.

The rapid recovery of economic growth in most countries of the continent to pre-crisis levels (about 5%) has not yet led to any noticeable changes in employment in terms of creating new jobs and reducing unemployment and poverty. Informal and unprotected employment continues to grow in sub-Saharan Africa, while North Africa continues to have high rates of unemployment, especially among young people and women. Thus, the share of unemployed representatives of the weaker sex in the SA is twice as high as that for men.

According to the ILO, youth unemployment in North Africa has steadily increased over the past decade, reaching 27.1% by 2011 (the corresponding figures for women, including young people, were 19% and 41%).⁸. Such unprecedented high rates were not registered in any region of the world, which is largely due to shifts in the age structure of the population towards younger groups (15-24 years) as a result of the rapid demographic growth observed in the region in the last quarter of the last century.

The greatest concern is caused by the growth of unemployment among secondary and higher school graduates, whose level is significantly, sometimes 2 times, higher than among those with primary education or without education at all. The recent wave of political instability in North Africa (the "Arab Spring") has demonstrated the seriousness of this situation, as it is young people who have the most pronounced protest potential. ⁹ High unemployment and rising food prices have led to political and social unrest in several North African countries. According to ILO Director-General Juan Somavia, "the wave of popular unrest in the Arab world is most closely linked to the long-term failure to meet people's needs for decent work and to ensure that their fundamental rights are respected"^.10

Global experience shows that solving the problem of employment remains extremely difficult, especially for regions that are lagging behind in development, such as Africa. It is clear that achieving this MDG target in Africa is absolutely unrealistic, but moving in this direction is extremely necessary, since "full, productive and freely chosen employment," says the ILO report "Work as a Means to combat Poverty", is the main tool for reducing and ultimately eliminating extreme poverty. poverty"¹¹.

There is no universal recipe for all countries on the continent, but an active employment policy involves a whole range of measures: vocational training; targeted measures to expand employment and social protection, including public works projects; support for small businesses and self-employment; prevention of brain drain; programs for young people, etc. Ultimately, the recovery of the African economy and the reduction of poverty will largely depend on the state of the labor force in both urban and rural areas. Education, health, food and shelter programmes aimed at improving the living conditions of the poorest segments of the population can also contribute to this.

HUNGER IS A "MULTI-HEADED MONSTER"*

Since 1990, developing regions have made some progress towards achieving the MDG goals of halving the proportion of people suffering from hunger. However, progress in reducing hunger has not been sufficient to significantly reduce the number of chronically malnourished people, whose share fell from 20% in 1990-1992 to 16% in 2000-2002. However, the process stalled in the 2000s. In 2005-2007. (most recent period for which data are available) the proportion of people suffering from hunger remained at 16%, despite a major reduction in extreme poverty in the world.

Between 2005 and 2007, 837 million people suffered from malnutrition, which was higher than in 1990-1992, when the number of hungry people in the world reached 828 million.¹²

The Asia - Pacific region, the most populous part of the world, is most affected by hunger in absolute terms, but sub-Saharan Africa is also undernourished.-

* According to the figurative expression of Zh. Dreza and A. See: Druze J., Sen A. Hunger and Public Action. Oxford, 1989, p. 3.).

but a third of the population, which is much higher than in the rest of the world. Today, 265 million Africans living in Tropical Africa suffer from hunger. ¹³ By way of comparison, less than 5% of the population in North Africa is undernourished, the lowest rate for developing countries and has persisted over the past 20 years.¹⁴

The recent global food and financial and economic crises have made the fight against hunger and malnutrition more difficult. The scale of global hunger increased markedly in 2009, reinforcing the trend of global food insecurity that has emerged over the past 15 years. The combination of these two crises has brought the number of hungry people on the planet to an extremely high level. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) estimates that 1.02 billion people worldwide were malnourished in 2009. approximately 100 ^{million more people than in 2008,15}

At the same time, although the proportion of hungry people in SSA countries has slightly decreased, from 31% in 1990-1992 to 26% in 2005-2007, it is still the highest in ^the world16. The Global Hunger Index, calculated by several indicators (percentage of undernourished, proportion of children under five underweight and infant mortality rates) declined in Africa by only 13% in 20 years (1990-2010), compared with 40% in other developing regions. ¹⁷ The global crises that followed have dramatically worsened the food situation in Africa, which could not but affect the solution to the problems of malnutrition and hunger.

One of the main negative factors was the widespread increase in food prices, which began during the world food crisis of 2006-2008 and continues to this day. Tropical African countries , mainly net food importers, were particularly affected. According to FAO, by the end of 2010, the food price index in Africa had risen by 34 points, only slightly below its 2008 peak. ¹⁸ Combined with rising food prices, incomes of poor households have fallen due to rising unemployment and underemployment as a result of the economic downturn. All this has contributed to a significant decline in the real purchasing power of low-income consumers, who spend a significant portion of their income (40% or more) on basic foodstuffs.

In addition to the crisis, such factors as natural disasters (periodic droughts, floods, locust attacks, etc.) and armed conflicts continue to have a negative impact on solving the problem of hunger. ¹⁹

It is enough to recall the largest humanitarian catastrophe of 2011 - a large-scale famine in the Horn of Africa (Somalia, Kenya, Ethiopia, etc.), which broke out as a result of the worst drought in the last half century and limited supplies of humanitarian aid due to political instability. The number of victims, according to various estimates, reached 11-13 million, including 2 million children, and 50-100 thousand died of hunger. Currently, in another region of Tropical Africa - the Sahel zone (Chad, Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania, Niger and northern Senegal), 13 million people are at risk of starvation. The reasons are the same: drought, high food prices, poverty, and regional conflicts. According to forecasts, the food situation on the continent with periodic outbreaks of mass hunger in its most vulnerable parts will continue in the coming decades due to rising world food prices, global climate change, environmental disasters, etc. ²⁰

Thus, according to FAO, in 2011, the cost of food imports for the least developed countries( LDCs), the vast majority of which are located in Tropical Africa, increased almost three times compared to 2010 (i.e. in just one year). The World Bank (WB) predicts that continued price increases will have negative consequences for food importers in SSA countries due to rising budget deficits and balance of payments disruptions, increased poverty, and the likelihood of social shocks in individual countries and regions.²¹ The African continent (with the exception of North Africa) is likely to remain the epicenter of the food crisis in the developing world for a long time to come.

World experience shows that although low yields can be one of the causes of mass starvation, the significance of this factor is not as great as one might expect. According to FAO estimates, total cereal production in 2009, when the number of undernourished people worldwide reached 1 billion. This figure was only slightly below the record high of 2008.

Hunger is often associated not with a lack of food, but with a lack or lack of funds to purchase it. "Hunger is inextricably linked to poverty, to profound income disparities, to lack of opportunities, ignorance, inequality and injustice," Fidel Castro noted 30 years ago in his report "The World's Economic and Social Crisis." ²² It is noteworthy that this interpretation of hunger and its social conditionality is shared by many Western scholars (R. Dumont, A. Sen, and others) ²³.

Poor nutrition undermines the main productive force of society-the individual. "Going to bed hungry or falling asleep from loss of energy is one of the most significant forms of deprivation that people can face, "says ^the 2010 Human Development Report24. Chronic hunger is at the root of the widespread prevalence of intractable diseases, high mortality rates (especially among children), and high mortality rates. low life expectancy. It is also one of the main obstacles to the normal reproduction of the labor force, which can be maintained under these conditions.

and manifest itself only in a " decaying form "(K. Marx).

Although the Sub-Saharan region as a whole is still too far from achieving the hunger reduction MDGs, there are exceptions. For example, Djibouti, the Republic of the Congo, Ghana, Nigeria and Mali have made significant strides in the fight against malnutrition and are almost there. A number of other States (Niger, Mauritania, Sudan, Namibia, Ethiopia and Benin) may be closer to achieving it by 2015. Among the North African States, Tunisia was the first to reach the target, followed by the remaining ²⁵.

Ending hunger and improving food security require both immediate relief efforts and more fundamental structural changes. Experts from the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) and the African Development Bank (AfDB) agree that a long-term and large-scale increase in investment in agriculture to increase its productivity should be central to a radical solution to this problem. While not denying the need for food assistance to meet urgent food needs (especially in long-term crises), ECA staff is convinced that it should be provided through targeted funds for these needs, rather than long-term investments in agriculture. "Food aid," they say, "is a short-term solution that does not contribute to achieving the MDGs in the long run." ²⁶

In this regard, much hope is pinned on the implementation of the Comprehensive Agricultural Development in Africa (CAADP) Programme, launched by the African Union (AU) in 2004, a 13-year plan that focuses on expanding the use of fertilizers and improved seeds, along with the establishment of irrigation systems to dramatically increase food production. Over the past period, some progress has been made in the practical implementation of the CAADP in a number of African countries; however, much remains to be done to ensure sustainable food security and, consequently, achieve the goal of halving hunger and malnutrition in Africa.

PRIMARY EDUCATION FOR ALL

In the pre-crisis period, due to the resumption of economic growth on the continent, there were positive changes in the development of education. For example, sub-Saharan Africa has seen the world's highest growth in primary school enrolment in recent years (from 58% in 1999 to 76% in 2009), although the region still lags behind a number of other parts of the world (for example, in North Africa - 94% in 2009)²⁷.In 11 States - Benin, Burundi, Kenya, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia - primary education fees have been abolished, opening up access to schooling for children from low-income families.

However, in SSA, 32 million primary school-age children (almost half of all children in this category worldwide) are still out of school, and 30% of those who enter the first grade do not finish it. ²⁸ The school-versus-work dilemma in poor families tends to be decided in favor of the latter. "Today, a child born anywhere in the region called sub - Saharan Africa is more likely to starve than go to primary school; it is more likely to die before the age of five, but never go to secondary school," the UN experts made such a gloomy forecast back ^{in 1996.29}

Obviously, there is an internal relationship between poverty and education in terms of opportunities to receive it. Evidence suggests that it is poverty that is the main obstacle on a child's way to school. Even where education is free, parents cannot buy school uniforms, textbooks, shoes, and other necessities, thus losing the benefits of "free education." In addition, many poor families may not be able to attend school because their children's presence in school detaches them from household work and other income-generating activities (especially for girls). Living in a conflict zone remains a serious obstacle to attending an educational institution.

It is clear that, despite significant progress in the 2000s, achieving universal primary education as one of the "Millennium Development Goals" in Africa as a whole will not be achieved by 2015. Meanwhile, a number of the poorest SSA countries - Burundi, Madagascar, Tanzania, Rwanda,Sao Tome and Principe, Togo-have already achieved or are close to achieving universal primary education (net enrolment ratio of more than 95%) ^.30 They are followed by Botswana, South Africa, Seychelles, Mauritius, Algeria and Tunisia.

Expanding school enrollment leads to a narrowing of the gender gap in this area. Many SSA countries have taken measures to eliminate barriers to girls ' education, resulting in a reduction in gender inequality in primary school in the region as a whole (92 girls per 100 boys in 2009, compared to 85 per 100 in 1999, respectively). At the same time, the situation in secondary and higher school levels is very low. During this period, it even worsened (79 and 63 girls in 2009 versus 82 and 67 in 1999), in contrast to regions where gender inequality decreased at all levels of education.

Thus, despite efforts to improve the situation of gender equality in education, the SSA countries are still far behind in achieving the target. The picture is different in North Africa. Gender parity has already been achieved in secondary and higher education, but at the primary level, the problem has not yet been solved, although some changes are taking place.-

some improvements (95 girls per 100 boys in 2009 versus 90 per 100 in 1999) ³¹.

The quality of education remains an unsolved problem. In many African countries, especially in the least developed countries, school infrastructure is underdeveloped, classrooms are overcrowded, and there is a lack of an adequate learning environment. An acute shortage of teachers and an even greater shortage of qualified teachers have become widespread, along with a low level of teacher training, which negatively affects the quality of education. In many African countries, teachers are often trained from those who do not even have a full secondary education, and the duration of their training remains the lowest in the world (2-3 years).

In order to save money and expand the teaching staff, many Governments, especially in West African countries, are widely employing teachers under contract, which is cheaper for the State than paying salaries to permanent staff. It is shocking to learn that the proportion of teachers who work under contract without any training or with training for less than 1 month is 82% in Togo, 79% in Chad, 67% in Mauritania and 38% in Niger.³²

The illiteracy rate among African adults (about 40%) is the highest in the world, and the absolute number of illiterates in sub-Saharan Africa continues to grow (more than 167 million, according to UNESCO), although their share is gradually decreasing.³³ This means that about two out of every five African adults can't read or write. This region also has the highest proportion of illiterate youth (28%, or 47 million people in 2009). As for North Africa, it (along with South Asia) is the leader compared to other regions in terms of the rate of increase in youth literacy (from 68% in 1990 to 87% in 2009 d.)^34.

The problem of financing education also remains relevant. Suffice it to say that despite the considerable efforts of the SSA countries in the last decade to increase investment in this area, including through external assistance, the level of 5.2% of the region's GDP in 1980 has not yet been reached (according to the latest estimates, in 2005-2007 it was 4.5% of GDP), which indicates that the depth of the decline in education financing in the 80s-90s of the last century. In terms of budget allocations per capita ($40 per year), Tropical Africa lags far behind not only the developed countries ($400-$600), but also all other regions of the developing world. Overall, SSA countries, where 15% of school-age children live, account for only 2.4% of the world's resources for education. It is estimated that the education budget of a single country such as France, Germany or Italy exceeds that of all sub-Saharan Africa combined.³⁵

Despite the obvious achievements of the last decade, the current state of education in Africa does not fully meet the goal of achieving universal primary education, nor the real economic needs of the countries of the region for qualified personnel, nor the interests of their further development. The absolute increase in the number of illiterates, the high percentage of "school losses" (dropouts and second years), the low quality of training, gender and social inequality, and the acute lack of funding - all this requires a close link between education policies and the specific conditions and goals of socio-economic development of the continent's countries.

(The ending follows)

^{Gromova O. B.} 1 Migrations in Africa / / Asia and Africa Today, 2008, N 4.

² Changing patterns and structures in the world of work. The ILO. Geneva, 2006, p. 37; Decent Work for Africa's Development. ILO. Geneva, 2003, p. 8 - 9, 11.

³ Ibid, p. 9.

⁴ Changing models and structures in the sphere of labor..., p. 37.

⁵ Global Employment Trends 2012. ILO. Geneva, 2012, p. 11, 76, 78.

⁶ The Millenium Development Goals Report 2010. UN. N.Y., 2010, p. 10.

⁷ Global Employment Trends 2012, p. 76.

⁸ Ibid., p. 75.

^{Vasiliev A.M.} 9 Tsunami revolyutsii [9 Tsunami of Revolutions] //Asia and Africa Today, 2011, No. 3; Tsunami of revolutions does not subside // Asia and Africa Today, 2011, No. 6; Korotaev A.V., Zinkina Yu. V. Egyptian Revolution of 2011: Structural and demographic analysis / / Asia and Africa Today, 2011, No. 6.

¹⁰ A new era of social justice. The ILO. Geneva, 2011, p. 7.

¹¹ Work as a means of combating poverty. The ILO. Geneva, 2003, p. 104.

¹² The Millennium Development Goals Report 2011. UN. N.Y., 2011, p. 11.

¹³ Finance & Development. IMF. Washington, March 2010, p. 40.

¹⁴ The Millennium Development Goals Report... 2010, p. 12.

¹⁵ Finance & Development, March 2010, p. 40^.

¹⁶ The Millennium Development... 2010, p. 12^.

¹⁷ Report on Progress in Achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in Africa, 2011. ECA. Addis Ababa, 2011, p. 11.

¹⁸Assessing Progress in Africa toward the Millennium Development Goals, 2011. ECA/AU/AfDB/UNDP. 2011, p. 17.

^{Fituni L. L.} 19th place of Africa in the post-crisis world economy. Article 3 (final) / / Asia and Africa Today, 2011, N2.

²⁰ The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2011. FAO. Rome, 2011, p. 11.

²¹ Global Economic Prospects. June 2011: Regional Annex. Sub-Saharan Africa. World Bank. Washington, 2011, p. 11.

^{F. Castro} 22 The world's economic and social crisis. Havana, 1983, p. 202.

^{Dumon R., Cohen M.} 23 The Growth of Hunger. L., 1980; Sen A. Poverty and Famines. Oxford, 1982.

²⁴ Human Development Report 2010. UNDP. N.Y., 2010, p. 35.

²⁵ Assessing Progress in Africa.., p. 19.

²⁶ Ibid., p. 20.

²⁷ The Millennium Development... 2011, p. 16.

²⁸ Ibid., p. 17.

²⁹ Cit. by: Perspektivy: comparative studies in the field of education. UNESCO/IBE, Geneva, 2000, vol. XXIX, No. 4, p. 52^.

³⁰ The Millennium Development... 2011, p. 17.

³¹ Ibid., p. 20.

³² UNESCO World Education for All (EFA) Monitoring Report 2008. Paris, 2008, p. 91.

³³ EFA Global Monitoring Report 2011. Regional overview: Sub-Saharan Africa. P., p. 16.

³⁴ The Millennium Development... 2011, p. 19.

³⁵ World Education Report, 2007. Comparison of world education statistics. UNESCO. Montreal, 2007. p. 12.

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