Keywords: Burkina Faso, Thomas Sankara, Blaise Compaore, political crisis, ECOWAS, African Union, UN, mediation

Burkina Faso is a country in West Africa (until August 1984 - Upper Volta). "Burkina Faso" means "Homeland of worthy people" ("Burkina" is translated from the language of the Mosi people as "dignity", "worthy person", "burkina Faso" in the Diula language - "land of ancestors", "homeland", "country").

Burkina Faso is one of the least developed countries, ranking 181st (out of 187) in the Human Development Index. 46.7% of Burkinis live below the poverty line ¹. 85% of the working-age population is employed in agriculture ².

The main export items are cotton, live cattle and gold. Imports are represented by manufacturing products, fuel and food. Burkina Faso has no access to the sea, so links with neighboring coastal States are extremely important for the country's economy.

A BIT OF HISTORY

The first states of the Mosi people appeared in the Volta River basin-in the territory of present-day Burkina Faso - in the XI century. Each of the five kingdoms (Yatenga, Ouagadougou, Tenkodogo, Zandoma and Gourma) was ruled by a traditional ruler-Naba. The Mosi states existed until 1904, when they came under the protectorate of France.³ In 1919, the colony of Upper Volta was established.

Deprived of access to the sea, Upper Volta remained unprofitable for the metropolis. The Voltians were forced to leave for work in neighboring colonies, primarily in the Ivory Coast (now Ivory Coast) and French Sudan (now Mali). The country has been assigned the role of a supplier of labor resources.

On December 11, 1958, Upper Volta received the status of a self-governing territory within the French Community, and on August 5, 1960, it gained independence. The country's first president was Maurice Yameogo, leader of the key Volta Democratic Union - African Democratic Movement party. In 1960, he was elected President, and in 1965, he was re-elected for a second term.

In the mid-1960s, Upper Volta was on the verge of a major economic crisis. At the end of 1965, mass protests began against the policies of the Yameogo government, and on January 3, 1966, the military, who refused to shoot at demonstrators, took power in their own hands.

Former Chief of the General Staff Sangule Lamizana, who put forward the program of "national revival", became the head of state. Lamizana managed to stabilize the situation for a time, and in 1978 he made the transition to civilian rule and held presidential elections, during which he won. However, drought and the threat of famine, as well as corruption and abuse of power, have undermined the Government's efforts. The teachers ' strike announced in October 1980 escalated into a general one.

In this situation, on November 25, 1980, Colonel Saye Zerbo, who served as Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1974-1976, carried out a bloodless coup, declared himself head of State and Government, suspended the constitution and created

National Revival Committee for National Progress. S. Zerbo, however, did not manage to stay in power. As a result of a revolt of military units, he was overthrown.

The new leader of the country was Major Jean-Baptiste Ouedraogo, who, in turn, established the National Salvation Council and appointed the popular paratrooper Captain Thomas Sankara as prime Minister. As a result of the split in the government, on May 17, 1983, T. Sankara was dismissed and placed under house arrest, and his supporters in the government were also imprisoned. This led to another military coup, in which Captain Blaise Compaore played a key role. On August 4, 1983, Sankara, Compaore's closest associate, became President of the country.

Thirty-three-year-old T. Sankara, known for his leftist views, declared his coming to power a "people's democratic revolution". He launched large-scale reforms aimed at changing the country's socio-economic course. The goal of the "revolution" was proclaimed to be "the elimination of the exploitation of man by man." For his left-wing views, Sankara was dubbed "the African Che Guevara".

T. Sankara did not assume the rank of general, was not noticed in embezzlement of public funds and the appointment of his relatives and tribesmen to the highest state posts. Moreover, he transferred the presidential salary to the fund for helping orphaned children, and his family lived on the salary of an army captain.⁴

The new head of state proved to be a consistent fighter against corruption and inequality: he transferred officials from luxury Mercedes cars to fuel-efficient Renos. Negligent civil servants were sent to plantations "for re-education". Sankara personally demonstrated simplicity and even asceticism. He forbade hanging his portraits, preventing the formation of a cult of personality.

In domestic politics, T. Sankara adopted the concept of self-reliance. Based on the Cuban experience, committees for the defense of the revolution were created, whose main function was to organize mass participation of the population in political life.

Great efforts were made to emancipate women and involve them in the political process.⁵ During his reign, a ban was imposed on female circumcision and forced marriage.

The Government of Burkina Faso is the first country on the African continent to recognize the threat of HIV spread/AIDS. Attention was paid to environmental issues: millions of trees were planted to prevent desertification and soil erosion.

The judicial system was not spared by the changes. T. Sankara established people's revolutionary tribunals that "dealt with" corrupt officials. It was possible for ordinary citizens to participate in their work. Open trials were conducted according to a simplified scheme and did not meet international standards of judicial procedure.⁶

The country launched a campaign to combat the "colonial legacy", during which, on the first anniversary of the "people's democratic revolution", the country received its current name-Burkina Faso. Sankara wrote the lyrics and music for the national anthem.

He has criticized the West, in particular international financial institutions such as the World Bank and the IMF. The basis of the foreign policy course was the development of relations with the Soviet Union and its allies. Cooperation with Cuba was particularly active: Sankara was on friendly terms with Cuban leader Fidel Castro. "Freedom Island" has become, to a certain extent, a model for transformation.

The border conflict with Mali over the disputed Agasher region, which was supposed to have natural gas and other mineral deposits, has proved to be a serious challenge for Burkina Faso. The Malian army launched an offensive on December 25, 1985 and was able to occupy a significant part of the disputed territory. Hundreds of people became victims of the five-day conflict. Under pressure from the OAU, the parties concluded a truce and referred the dispute to the International Court of Justice, which subsequently divided the territory of Agashir equally.

Despite some success in the socio-economic sphere, T. Sankara made many enemies. He turned the traditional elite of the Mosi against him, depriving the leaders of privileges. His radical left-wing views and anti-imperialist political course could not but cause dissatisfaction with the former metropolis of France and other West African countries. Finally, the anti-corruption campaign and reduced spending on the state apparatus have irritated officials. A plot was brewing against the leader, which he probably suspected. On October 15, 1987, a coup took place, during which T. Sankara was killed. A week before his death, he said, "You can kill revolutionaries, but you can't kill ideas." ⁷

A former associate of Sankara, Blaise Compaore, came to power. In words, he renewed his commitment to the course of the "national revolution". However, the new

The head of state rejected the anti-imperialist course, saying that Burkina Faso is committed to respecting its obligations to other countries and international organizations.

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, a wave of democratization swept across Africa, ending many one-party regimes. Under these circumstances, B. Compaore reformed the political system in order to create formal democratic institutions. In 1991, a new constitution was adopted and presidential elections were held. B. Compaore, being the only candidate due to the boycott of the elections by the opposition, won with an extremely low turnout (27.3%) ^.8 He was re-elected as President in 1998, 2005 and 2010.

The country has enjoyed a relatively long period of political stability and economic growth, albeit unstable. However, there are structural socio-economic problems - poverty, low food security, lack of clean water, etc. - they were never resolved. Foreign companies have developed mining activities in Burkina Faso (gold, manganese, etc.). The Government has sought to provide them with the most favorable working conditions, often to the detriment of the country's population. ⁹

Compaore's foreign policy course was aimed at restoring confidence in Burkina Faso from the international community in order to receive financial, technical and humanitarian assistance. In the African direction, he provided support to anti-government groups in other countries: the National Patriotic Front of Liberia. Taylor, to the Revolutionary United Front of F. Sanko (Sierra Leone)¹⁰. According to reports, the rebels were supplied with weapons, ammunition and fuel through the territory of Burkina Faso, bypassing the UN embargo.

Meanwhile, B. Compaore became a respected head of State in the region, acted as a mediator in the settlement of disputes and conflicts, ¹¹ in particular in Mali, and also served as chairman of a number of regional and subregional associations: the Organization of African Unity (OAU, 1998-1999), the Economic Community of West African Countries (ECOWAS, 2007-2008).

BLACK SPRING: EVENTS OF OCTOBER 2014

The" first bell " for the leadership of Burkina Faso was the mass protests in 2011, which were called the "Burkini spring" in the press by analogy with the "Arab spring". Soldiers ' riots were supported by speeches of members of public organizations and trade unions. The conflict was resolved through tactical concessions. B. Compaore dismissed a number of governors and high-ranking officials.

By 2014, Compaore had been president for 27 years and clearly did not want to give up power. The main obstacle to retaining the highest state post was Article 37 of the Constitution, which limited the presidential mandate to two terms. On October 21, 2014, an extraordinary meeting of the Council of Ministers decided to amend the Constitution to amend the text of Article 37 and allow the President to re-nominate his candidacy in the 2015 elections. ¹² The draft referendum was submitted for consideration by the National Assembly, the majority of whose deputies belonged to the pro-presidential Congress for Democracy and Progress party. ¹³ A parliamentary vote was scheduled for October 30.

The opposition and civil society forces were strongly opposed to Compaore's participation in the next presidential election. The dialogue between the government and its opponents has reached an impasse due to the irreconcilable positions of the parties.

The conflict escalated on October 28, 2014, when more than a million protesters took to the streets of Ouagadougou and other cities. There were calls for Compaore to resign. The protests reached their peak on October 30: demonstrators broke through the cordon, broke into the parliament building and the television center. The homes of prominent Compaore supporters were vandalized ¹⁴.

The situation is out of control of the authorities. The president declared a state of emergency, but the military refused to obey orders and began to go over to the side of the protesters. Already on the morning of October 31, Compaore canceled the State of emergency, dissolved the government, and declared his readiness to negotiate with the opposition and the possibility of transferring power to a democratically elected president.¹⁵ A few hours later, he resigned and, with the help of France, fled to neighboring Ivory Coast. According to the opposition, about 30 people were killed in the clashes, ¹⁶ and about 600 were injured.

In the de facto absence of the supreme power, the military took control of the situation. The commander of the armed forces, General Honore Traore, announced on the radio that consultations on the formation of a transitional government with the involvement of tribal leaders had begun. In the address, he declared himself interim president. A little later, the Deputy made a similar statement.

The commander of the Presidential Guard regiment is Lieutenant Colonel Yacoub Isaac Zida. The military supported I. Zida, who became the head of the country after the flight of B. Compaore. According to the Constitution of Burkina Faso, if the President resigns, his duties should be performed by the President of the Senate, but earlier the military announced the dissolution of both chambers of Parliament17.

In 2014, the military came to power for the sixth time during the period of independent development of Burkina Faso. All heads of state, with the exception of the first President M. Yameogo, were military. Among them is Compaore, who was behind the 1987 military coup. According to the former Ambassador of the USSR/According to E. N. Korendyasov, Head of the Center for Russian-African Relations and Foreign Policy with African Countries of the IAfr RAS, the opposition formed after the mass protests of 2011 played a key role in the overthrow of Compaore. ¹⁸

The military ensured the maintenance of order and prevented the escalation of violence. In an anarchy, their actions may have been the best solution. We managed to stop the bloodshed and prevent rampant crime. However, the opposition was dissatisfied with the coming of the army leadership to power in the country.

The change of power in Burkina Faso was the result of a complex of internal reasons. The socio-economic problems were compounded by the latent discontent with Compaore's long rule, the corruption and isolation of the ruling group from the real situation in the country. The Government did not eliminate the causes of the 2011 unrest and ignored the changed mood. The president's desire to prolong his prolonged stay in power was a kind of signal for the opposition, which organized mass demonstrations.

Against this background, the military again took the stage. There was a real threat of conflict between the officers who came to power and the opposition leaders. International mediators intervened in the process.

THE STABILIZING ROLE OF ECOWAS

ECOWAS has developed a position on attempts to overthrow the legitimate authorities in its member countries. One of the fundamental principles of ECOWAS is "the establishment and strengthening of a democratic system of government in each Member State, in accordance with the Declaration of Political Principles adopted in Abuja on 6 July 1991"^.19 The document proclaims the "inalienable right of the individual" to participate in the governance of society through a democratic process. The Community's desire to promote and promote political pluralism and representative institutions is stated.

In 1999, the Protocol on Mechanisms for Conflict Prevention, Resolution and Resolution, Maintenance of Peace and Security was adopted. It emphasized the link between socio-economic development and the security of peoples and States. Security issues are the responsibility of the Council of Heads of State and Government, the Mediation and Security Council, and the Executive Secretariat. The powers of these bodies and the procedure for forming and making decisions are regulated. According to the document, the Defense and Security Commission, the Council of Elders and the Truce Monitoring Group (ECOMOG)were supposed to ensure the implementation of decisions.²⁰

The Protocol on Good Governance and Democracy adopted in Dakar on 21 December 2001 provides for the inadmissibility of the seizure or retention of power by force. The role of the armed forces and the police and their duty to obey the legitimate authorities are regulated ²¹.

The Community declared that it supports the principles of constitutional legality and democracy, as well as preventing the forcible seizure of power not only in words, but also in deeds. ECOWAS has repeatedly applied sanctions against member States whose leadership came to power unconstitutionally, in violation of democratic norms.

In Burkina Faso, the military's rise to power has provoked a generally negative reaction from the international community. The US State Department demanded the immediate transfer of government to civilian leaders and called for early elections. A similar statement was made by the AU.

After President Compaore fled the country, ECOWAS, together with other international organizations, took urgent measures to normalize the situation. A joint mission of the United Nations, African Union and ECOWAS to assess the situation was established, and on November 5, 2014, a group of mediators consisting of the Presidents of Nigeria, Ghana and Senegal visited Ouagadougou, where they held consultations with the country's de facto leadership, representatives of political parties and civil society.

As a result of the visit, demands were formulated (the renewal of the constitution, the creation of a transitional government, the holding of general elections within a year), the implementation of which was supposed to help resolve the crisis

and restoring the rule of law. At the same time, the mediators expressed their appreciation to I. Zida and the armed forces of the country as a whole for their professional actions in maintaining security.²²

On 6 November, an extraordinary session of the Council of Heads of State and Government was held, during which the Presidents and Prime Ministers of the ECOWAS member countries approved the decisions taken following the visit of the mediators to Ouagadougou, announced the establishment of a contact group chaired by the President of Senegal, M. Salla; the group also included the President of the Council of Heads of State and Government of the Community, the President of Ghana J. R. R. TolkienMahama ²³.

TRANSITION PROCEDURE

On November 16, the so-called Charter of the Transition Period was approved, which actually became an addition to the country's Constitution, regulating the procedure for staffing and functioning of the highest authorities.

The Head of State for one year was to be the President, who was elected by a panel consisting of five delegates from political parties, civil society, law enforcement agencies, as well as eight representatives of religious and traditional institutions. The document prohibits the President from participating in presidential or parliamentary elections during the transition period. If the President is unable to perform his duties, his powers pass to the Prime Minister.

The National Transitional Council is recognized as the highest legislative body (the pro-presidential National Assembly was dissolved). It includes 30 members of opposition parties, 25 delegates from civil society, 25 representatives of law enforcement agencies and 10 deputies representing other segments of society.

It provides for the formation of a Transitional Government consisting of 25 ministers, who will lose the right to participate in the presidential and parliamentary elections at the end of 2015. ²⁴ Members of the former Cabinet of Ministers and those who openly supported the revision of Article 37 of the Constitution are prohibited from holding senior positions in the Transitional Government or running for the National Transitional Council. The Government should be headed by the Prime Minister appointed by the President ²⁵.

In accordance with the Charter, the functioning of transitional authorities is regulated by the Constitution of June 2, 1991.

The document outlined the framework for the formation of the National Reconciliation and Reform Commission , a special government body accountable to the Prime Minister. It is responsible for reforming the State structures of Burkina Faso during the transition period.

Thus, a legal framework was developed for the formation of transitional authorities, which ensured their legitimacy in the eyes of the Burkini society, the leading political forces of the country and the international community.

TRANSITION ISSUES

After a lengthy debate, on November 17, 2014, it was announced that a career diplomat, former Foreign Minister and Permanent Representative of Burkina Faso to the UN, Michel Kafando, had been appointed President for a transitional period. He also got the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs. The Special Board unanimously supported his candidacy.

On 18 November, Kafando was sworn in before the Constitutional Court of Burkina Faso, which approved his appointment. On November 21, during a solemn ceremony, the de facto head of state I. Zida handed over power to him.

On November 23, a provisional government was formed, headed by I. Zida, who simultaneously received the portfolio of Defense Minister. The government, recognized by the international community, includes three military personnel. The country continued to receive financial and humanitarian assistance, as well as participate in the work of international organizations.

On December 31, 2014, the ban on the activities of the former ruling party, the Congress for Democracy and Progress, was lifted. However, it was already weakened after the flight of B. Compaore. Moreover, former members of the National Assembly who supported the repeal of article 37 of the Constitution in October 2014 are legally prohibited from participating in the upcoming elections. ²⁶

On January 22, during an official press conference, President Kafando announced the simultaneous holding of presidential and parliamentary elections on October 11, 2015. The organization of municipal elections is scheduled for January 2016. At the same time, the head of state ruled out the participation of citizens living abroad in the elections.

Attempts to reduce the salaries of military personnel caused dissatisfaction of the elite division of the presidential security service, whose commanders on February 4, 2015 called for the resignation of I. Zida. Through the mediation of the traditional ruler Mosi Mogo Naba, a meeting was organized between the Prime Minister and ru-

under the leadership of the Presidential Guard. Zida announced the granting of new powers to the military unit, which will be determined by a specially created committee. In response, the demand for the resignation of the head of government was withdrawn.

Despite the Government's efforts to organize the upcoming elections and ensure the functioning of the State during the transition period, the threat of military interference in the political process remains, and the failure of the large diaspora to participate in the elections may undermine the legitimacy of the authorities.

THE ROLE OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY IN SUPPORTING THE UPCOMING ELECTIONS

One of the main foreign policy goals of the Transitional Government was to receive financial and organizational support for the elections.

On January 12, a special UN mission arrived in Ouagadougou to assess the possible costs of the electoral campaign. On January 13, during a meeting of the special group for promoting the transition to civilian rule, the Government voiced a request addressed to the international community to provide financial assistance.

In February, I. Zida met with the EU representative in Burkina Faso A. Holleville, who expressed the EU's readiness to assist in the organization of elections, as well as in the formation of the country's budget. Representatives of Germany, Japan, a number of other countries and international organizations also announced their intention to provide financial assistance to the country. In addition, the Transitional Government received loans from the Islamic Development Bank to implement projects to combat drought and develop agricultural infrastructure.

Thus, the country managed to avoid isolation in the international arena and retain the possibility of receiving financial and technical assistance.

RESULTS OF EFFORTS TO RESOLVE THE CRISIS

Representatives of three levels of organizations: global (UN), regional (AU) and sub-regional (ECOWAS) managed to persuade and pressure (threat of sanctions) to achieve the following goals::

- First, Burkina Faso has avoided an escalation of violence and civil war;

- Secondly, there is no negative precedent for unconstitutional seizure of power in the region, which is consistently opposed by the AU and ECOWAS. Thanks to the adoption of the Transitional Charter and the establishment of interim authorities, it was possible to return the situation to the legal field and prevent the destabilization of the situation in West Africa, where the heavy burden of socio-economic problems creates a constant threat of a surge in violence;

- Third, Burkina Faso has not become an object of international sanctions and a "pariah state". Maintaining its image in the eyes of the international community is especially important for the country in light of its dependence on donor assistance.

However, it is too early to talk about the successful completion of the transition process, since there are certain risks. Only after the 2015 elections will it be possible to give an objective comprehensive assessment of international efforts to resolve the Burkini political crisis in 2014.

¹ Human Development Report 2014 // Human Development Reports, United Nations Development Programme - http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdrl4-report-en-l.pdf

² Family farming vs agrobusiness for food security // Uniterra, 16.10.2012.

³ Africa. Encyclopedia. In 2 volumes (edited by A.M. Vasiliev). Moscow, 2000. Vol. 1. (Afrika. 2000. Entsiklopedia. Vol. 1. М.) (in Russian)

⁴ Captain decent people. How Thomas Sankara built a just society in Burkina Faso / / Military Review, 05.08.2014.

⁵ "We are Heirs of the World's Revolutions": Lessons from Thomas Sankara // Thomas Sankara Website, 15.05.2010.

⁶ Sankara: daring to invent Africa's future // Guardian, 15.10.2008.

⁷ Burkina Faso salutes "Africa's Che" Thomas Sankara // Reuters. 07.10.2007.

⁸ Africa. Encyclopedia...

⁹ Revolt Rocks Burkina Faso's Mines After President Flees // Bloomberg. 08.04.2015.

¹⁰ 2 African Nations Said to Break U.N. Diamond Embargo // New York Times. 01.08.2000.

¹¹ Blaise Compaore. President of Burkina Faso // Encyclopedia Britannica - http://www.britannica.com/

¹² Former President of Burkina Faso Blaise Compaore. Biography / / ITAR-TASS. 31.10.2014.

¹³ Elections in Burkina Faso // African Elections Database. 12.10.2014 - http://africanelections.tripod.com/bf.html

¹⁴ Kompaore Says Will Step Down As Burkina Faso President // Deutsche Welle. 30.10.2014.

¹⁵. The President of Burkina Faso lifted the state of emergency in the country / / ITAR-TASS. 31.10.2014.

¹⁶ President of Burkina Faso Blaise Compaore resigned / / RIA Novosti. 31.10.14.

¹⁷ The military of Burkina Faso made it clear: "we are for Isaac Zidou" / / Russian Air Force Service. 01.11.2014.

¹⁸ Blaise Compaore, former President of Burkina Faso / / Radio Station "Echo of Moscow", 05.11.14 - http://echo.msk.ru/programs/ 48minut/1431092-echo/

¹⁹ Treaty of ECOWAS // ECOWAS Official Site -http://www.comrn.ecowas.int/sec/?id=treaty&lang-en

²⁰ Protocol Relating to the Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management, Resolution, Peace-keeping and Security // ECOWAS Official Site - http://www.comm.ecowas.int/sec/9id-apl01299

²¹ http://www.comm.ecowas.int/sec/en/protocoles/Protocol%20 on%20good-governance-and-democracy-rev-5EN.pdf

²² Communique on the visit of Presidents John Dramani Mahama of the Republic of Ghana, Goodluck Ebele Jonathan of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and Macky Sall of the Republic of Senegal to Burkina Faso // ECOWAS Official Site. 05.11.2014 - http://news.ecowas.int/presseshow.php?nb-201&lang-en&annee-2014

²³ Communique Burkina Faso crisis: extraordinary summit of the ECOWAS authority // ECOWAS Official Site. 06.11.2014 -http://news.ecowas.int/presseshow.php?nb=205&lang-en&annee"2014

²⁴ Burkina Faso announces a transitional government // Al-Jazeera. 23.11.2014.

²⁵ Charte de la transition // Constitution Net. 13.11.2014 -http://www.constitutionnet.org/files/charte_de_la_transition_burkina _faso.pdf

²⁶ Burkina Faso: Electoral bill rejecting ex-pro Compaогй officials adopted / African Spot. 13.04.2015.

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