In the last twenty years, Russian African studies have been increasingly focused on a new issue for the Russian humanities: gender studies based on socially and culturally marked gender specifics. However, it should be recognized that some sprouts of this scientific direction sprouted many decades before, even at the dawn of the formation of African studies in our country, as an independent branch of knowledge. The "women's theme" was also present in the earlier works of Soviet scientists who devoted their research to the peoples of the African continent. This applies mainly to the works of such well-known researchers as D. A. Olderogge, I. I. Potekhin, L. E. Kubbel, A. S. Orlova, and I. A. Svanidze [Kubbel, 1974; Olderogge, 1960; Orlova, 1958; Orlova, 1968; Potekhin, 1958; Potekhin, 1956; Svanidze, 1972, p. 323-324].

The study of the place and role of women in archaic and modern African society initially appeared within the framework of traditional academic disciplines: history, ethnology, cultural studies, sociology, political science, and law. The greatest attention was paid to African women as objects of scientific research when analyzing the system of kinship and family-marriage relations, which were the cementing basis of all African societies at various stages of history. This topic was especially characteristic of the representatives of the Leningrad school of ethnographers and philologists, who are still successfully continuing the work started by the outstanding Russian Africanist corresponding member. Academy of Sciences OF THE USSR D. A. Olderogge. His epochal work "Epigamy" (Olderogge, 1983) included articles from various years that set out the author's ideas on general theoretical and specific problems of the social system of the peoples of Tropical Africa in the pre-colonial period, including the relationship between sexes and generations in the context of the kinship system, marriage customs and customary law. Among the significant works of his followers, written in the same vein, are the books of St. Petersburg scientists V. R. Arsenyev and V. A. Abramovich. Using the example of the Bambara (Mali) [Arsenyev, 1997] and Akanov (Ghana) [Popov, 1990] peoples, the role and significance of the kinship system (both in the female and male line) in all spheres of life of Africans is shown. it is often impossible to understand the essence of traditional economic and socio-political relations.

The idea that the system of kinship and family-marriage relations should be considered as the mainspring of the "mechanism" of all African cultures, which sets the rhythm in many spheres of human activity and in social structures from the family to state entities, was successfully promoted by representatives of the Moscow school of African studies. Thus, N. B. Kochakova in her monograph "Yoruba City-States" (Kochakova, 1968), considering the pre-colonial history of this Nigerian people and drawing conclusions about the nature of the social and political structures of the transition period from a classless society to a class one, points out the close connection of the power-hierarchical political system with communal-tribal institutions. Although they were based on male blood relations, women still played an important role within the blood-related idile collective, both as wives of leaders and kings, as well as priestesses of tribal cults and members of secret unions.

N. A. Ksenofontova's book" The People of Zimbabwe " (Ksenofontova, 1974) analyzes in detail the communal and tribal organization of the Shona people (Southern Rhodesia, now the State of Zimbabwe) from the tenth to the middle of the twentieth century. The extensive factual material shows an unbroken connection between the-

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replicating various types of social and economic ties and forms of dependence with the structure of family and clan relations. Special emphasis is placed on the relationship between the sexes and generations in the context of socialization, moral, ethical, legal and religious norms, with the conclusion that this society, like other ethnic groups in Africa, is characterized by a strict distinction between "female", "male" and "child" roles that society imposes on the individual from early childhood and strictly controls their execution throughout his life. An attempt is made to reveal the complexity of the relationship between male and female populations both within the framework of traditional and in the system of colonial society.

The topic of intergenerational relations and gender-age division of labor was continued and elaborated in detail in K. P. Kalinovskaya's monograph " Age groups of East African peoples. Structure and functions" (Kalinovskaya, 1976) on the example of the pastoral peoples of Galla and Konso (Ethiopia), Nuer (Sudan), Maasai (Kenya, Tanzania), Jie (Uganda) and Nyakusa (Tanzania). Showing the historical evolution of age systems from the era of the primitive communal system to the XX century, the author comes to the conclusion that these age associations, as well as secret unions, initiation schools, men's and women's houses, are links in the same chain in the development of many societies and reflect a regular period in their history. In addition, K. P. Kalinovskaya supported those researchers who tried to refute the opinion of the majority of foreign ethnographers that the age system should be considered exclusively as a male institution. She cites the data of scientists who recorded the formation of female age groups and the presence of special women's homes in a number of tribes, and proves that the effect of the age system and its norms was not limited only to the ritual side, but affected all spheres of human activity and interpersonal communication.

Many chapters of the book Pages of the History of the Great Savanna (Orlova and Lvova, 1978) by A. S. Orlova and E. S. Lvova are devoted to the system of female kinship and the operation of maternal law norms that ensure the continuity of royal blood and the legality of obtaining power, describing customs, traditions and major milestones in the pre-colonial history of the Congo states (XIII-XIX Kuba (XVI-early XX century), Luba (XVI-XIX centuries), and Lunda or Mwata-Iambo (XVI-2nd half of the XIX century).

Detailed descriptions of the life cycle rituals that an African woman underwent from birth to death are given in the textbook "Ethnography of Africa" by E. S. Lvova [Lvova, 1984], which summarizes the results of studies of the peoples of sub-Saharan Africa by many domestic and foreign scientists. This fundamental ethnographic survey, written in a language accessible to the general reader, provides a clear picture of the place and role of women in the system of kinship and family-marriage relations, their participation in the organization and transfer of power, their contribution to the development of national culture and art, to the formation of spiritual values, religious cults and ideas. The author especially emphasized the importance of the cult of maternal ancestors-patrons.

An attempt to better understand the traditional life of the African community through a detailed analysis of its structure, the role and functions of each of its members (both men and women) through the prism of customary law was made in her fundamental monographs by the jurist I. E. Sinitsyna, who quite rightly believed that the problems of customary law tradition are directly related not only to law but also to the historical and cultural development of peoples. In the work " Custom and Customary Law in modern Africa "[Sinitsyna, 1978], applying a comprehensive approach and using materials of a legal and ethnographic nature, official documents and codes of customary law of the peoples of Tanzania, Kenya, Cameroon and other countries, the works of historians and notes of travelers, the author analyzes in detail family customs and the nature of intra-family ties male and female relatives, personal status, status of women, inheritance rules. I. E. Sinitsyna continued her research in the book "Man and Family in Africa" (Sinitsyna, 1989), in which the theme of "female" fate in the context of family and marriage relations was further developed. Special emphasis is placed on the issue of property relations and inheritance rights, and the ambiguity, elasticity and variability of women's role functions in the legal field of the family community are revealed, which can take the most unexpected shapes depending on the interests and needs of members of a small or large family. In particular, this applies to such special forms of marriage as "the marriage of a woman with a woman", when a childless widow, already unable to bear children, enters into an alliance with another tribeswoman who gives birth to a child from an outsider

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men, and this child is considered the child of the widow's late husband. Thus, an African woman who has accepted the conditional function of her husband retains the family property and the status of a small family for herself and these newborns.

Since family-marriage relations and the system of kinship where women occupy their niche are inextricably interwoven into the fabric of social relations, almost all of the mentioned works contain small passages that describe the activities of African women in the context of historical events. It can be stated that in the works published in the 1950s and 1980s, the "women's theme" did not have an independent value, but was fragmentary information and was rather of an official nature, subordinate to the "male" history [Kochakova, 1986; Kubbel, 1974; Novikov, 1987; Orlova, 1958; Orlova and Lvova, 1978; Fadeev, 1962].

However, some attempts have been made to conduct full-fledged studies that would consider the place and role of African women in history and in the political system in all their versatility.

Thus, P. M. Smirnova's monograph " The Situation of Women in African Countries "(Smirnova, 1967) is the first generalizing study in Soviet and foreign literature of the fate of African women, the peculiarities of their activities and their position in the social structure of African societies. Describing the high status of women in distant historical times, the author gives portraits of outstanding personalities who were at the head of state formations of many African peoples: the ruler of Hausa Amina, the Ashanti queens Guebi Saa Ababio Vankin and Yaa Asantieva, the queens of Zambia (dbemba) and Zimbabwe (dshona) led Amazon detachments in such medieval states as Dahomey, The Ashanti, Monomotapa, led anti-colonial uprisings, such as the sister of the Angolan ruler Zinga Mbandi Ngola. P. M. Smirnova pays special attention to the situation of the female population in the first decades of the formation of independent states, since, as she believes, African women have an important role to play in the development of African countries along the path of economic and social progress. In addition to describing the role and importance of women in political events, the book focuses on the analysis of women's working conditions in national economies, general and vocational education, the situation in the field of maternal health, etc.

One of the most acute problems facing the young States of Tropical Africa and domestic researchers in the late 1970s and early 1980s was the social liberation of women, the largest socio-demographic group of the population that was subjected to the greatest oppression and exploitation during the colonial period. S. I. Shvetsova's book " Tropical Africa. Problems of women's social liberation "[Shvetsova, 1982], in which she conducts a thorough analysis of the program guidelines, policies and ideologies of revolutionary democratic parties and governments of countries that have chosen the path of socialist orientation as their development strategy, in the field of solving the women's issue and the role of the women's movement on the continent as a real force in the gender equality.

Published before the mid-1990s, gender studies were written within the framework of historical feminology , a scientific field that has received the name "Women Studies" abroad - "women's studies", "women's studies". This approach was based on the desire to show the peculiarities of the family-related, economic, socio-political and legal status of women and their place in history. Such studies include articles by E. A. Bragina and I. A. Ulanovskaya in the collective monograph " Women in the Modern World. Towards the results of the xth Anniversary of UN Women " [Women..., 1989].

Despite the shortcomings, ambiguities and fragmentary nature of the development of the "women's" theme, all the works considered played an important role, serving as an impetus that led to the formation and design of a new scientific direction in African studies. In my opinion, the outstanding Soviet/Russian Africanists L. E. Kubbel and V. B. Iordansky can be considered the grandparents in this regard.

Although almost 50 years have passed since the publication of L. E. Kubbel's article "The oldest report on the custom of co-ruling a brother and sister among African peoples" (Kubbel, 1961), the conclusions drawn in it have not lost their relevance and depth. The author introduces the data of G. Nachtigall and P. Pogge, who described the custom that existed in the Lund of Angola (XVI-XIX centuries) and received the name lukokesh in the ethnographic literature. Lukokesha is the title of one

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from the sisters of Mwato-Yamvo, who was symbolically considered the mother of all the kings of the country. She was their equal co-ruler, had full and unlimited power over the life and death of her subjects, and the choice of a new king depended on her opinion. She had her own palace and court, had extensive estates from which she received a tax, she owned symbols of power (an ivory bracelet - lucano) and numerous slaves. Comparing this institution with similar phenomena among other peoples in various regions of the African continent, L. E. Kubbel believed that they indicate the great importance of matrilineal kinship counting in the inheritance of power for many African rulers. He showed that in most cases the name, title, or mascot of female ancestors who were at the head of a clan or state often turned into a title of royal power for male heirs to the throne. In other words, there is a close co-existence and interweaving of matriarchal and patriarchal norms of customary law.

The fact that the ratio of male and female in all areas of material, social and spiritual life is the basis of the entire human worldview of traditional African society was clearly and fully shown by V. B. Iordansky in the books "Chaos and Harmony" [Iordansky, 1982] and "Animals, People, Gods" [Iordansky, 1991]. On the basis of personal impressions when visiting different parts of Africa and a large number of scientific developments of Western and African authors, analyzing the types and genres of oral folk art (myths, fairy tales, legends, proverbs and sayings), the author explores little-studied worldview systems of modern inhabitants of the continent, which have deep roots in the darkness of centuries. As V. B. Iordansky shows, the theme of the interaction of the sexes, their complementarity and contradictions underlie all ideas about time, space, myths, magic, real and afterlife, and personality.

However, according to the author, the same circumstances in which Africans and Africans lived did not always lead to identical manifestations of the needs and interests of men and women, their ideas about the world around them (about nature and society) and about their place in it. And in this, according to V. B. Iordansky, the antagonism between the sexes was manifested. These ideas were developed in his article " The man-woman opposition in African Mythology "(Iordansky, 1986).

The ideas put forward by L. E. Kubbel and V. B. Iordansky were also confirmed by the works of V. A. Beilis, who considered the life of cultural traditions over a significant period of time, reviewing the research of both Western and African scientists. He paid special attention to the dynamics of culture in such areas as ritual, religious systems, fiction, urban life, etc. [Beilis, 1986]. As the author emphasized, the antagonism between a man and a woman is particularly pronounced in the ritual space, and the difference in their social status is most clearly visible. Analyzing the study of the English ethnographer W. Turner "Symbol and Ritual", V. A. Baylis especially highlights his description of the"status change" custom, which is important for maintaining social stability in society. To relieve tension in relations between the sexes, special rituals were performed during certain periods of the year, when representatives of the "stronger" sex temporarily abandoned their functions (economic and social), and women took over their roles and power. At this point, the main, leading role was assigned to the latter, and the subordinate role was assigned to their fathers, brothers, husbands, and elders.

The conclusions of these authors strongly emphasized the need to reconstruct "women's history" not as a subordinate part of" men's history", but as an objective reality in itself. It was becoming quite obvious that the "just add a woman" approach, i.e. to mechanically include information about her in the general fabric of African studies, looks completely insufficient.

In the mid-1980s, N. P. Kosmarskaya, N. A. Ksenofontova, and I. G. Rybalkina, employees of the Institute of African Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences, came to the conclusion that it was necessary to separate women's studies into an independent scientific field within the framework of African studies. In their monographs and articles published in the 1990s, they carried out the idea of the existence of a special female subjectivity and female social experience, and did not limit themselves only to the study of women's lives, but raised the question more broadly: they were interested in the problems of gender-the features of the development of society through a deep analysis of the relationship and interaction of political and spiritual spheres of life [Kosmarskaya, 1983; Kosmarskaya, 1997; Ksenofontova, 1990; Ksenofontova, 1992; Ksenofontova, 1994; Ksenofontova, 1999; Ksenofontova and Rybalkina, 2000; Rybalkina, 1993; Rybalkina, 1994; Rybalkina, 1999; World of the African Village..., 1997, pp. 140-153].

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At about the same time, a very interesting topic from a scientific point of view and relevant to everyday Russian life still appears on the agenda - the fate of Russian women who at different times married African citizens and settled in Africa. A pioneer in the development of this problem was N. L. Krylova, who published the monograph " Russian Women in Africa. Problems of adaptation " [Krylova, 19961, written on the basis of the results of a survey of several hundred of our compatriots - wives of Africans who live in Russia and on the African continent.

All the research and conclusions made by these scientists naturally led to the creation in 1991 of an intersectoral group of gender studies in the structure of the Institute of Africa of the Russian Academy of Sciences, which is still headed by N. L. Krylova and N. A. Ksenofontova. The group became a center that brought together not only specialists within the Institute, but also Russian researchers from other academic institutions (Institute of Oriental Studies, Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology, Institute of State and Law, Kunstkamera), educational institutions (MSU, ISAA, RSUH, UDN), scientists from Adygea, Yaroslavl, Rostov, African students and postgraduates.

All those who are interested in the problem of gender relations on the African continent regularly organize joint discussions every three years in the framework of a special gender section and round tables at African studies conferences [Africa in the context of..., 2002; Africa on the threshold..., 1999; African security..., 2005; African Development..., 2008]. The results of such discussions are presented in the form of collective works.

Since 1999, the group members have been publishing collections and individual monographs in the format of the series "Gender Studies of the Institute of Africa of the Russian Academy of Sciences" under the general editorship of N. A. Ksenofontova. Such joint projects involve not only colleagues from Russia, but also specialists from other countries: the United States and Canada, Great Britain, Italy, France, India, Guinea, Zambia, Mali, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Togo, and South Africa. By 2008, 10 volumes of the series had been published [Gender and Power, 2008; Gender Studies..., 2000; Gender Problems..., 2003; Grishina, 2007; Krylova, Prozhogina, 2002; Krylova, Prozhogina, 2004; Krylova, Prozhogina, 2007; Ksenofontova, 1999; Man and Woman..., 2004; Man and the woman..., 2007].

The series opens with N. A. Ksenofontova's monograph " Afrikanki. Gender aspect of social development" [Ksenofontova, 1999], which received a positive assessment in the scientific press. The publication of this book marked the beginning of a qualitatively new stage in the coverage of "women's" topics in the Oriental discourse. For the first time in African studies, such concepts as "gender" and "gender studies"were introduced into scientific circulation. The monograph is a comprehensive scientific study of the gender aspect of social relations in traditional African society. An attempt is made to give a large-scale picture of the life of both sexes in the context of historical events, their relationships within the family, social environment, spiritual culture and religious ritual.

In a similar vein, other works of this series are written, which are characterized by a departure from the description of purely "women's stories", an enlargement of problematic topics, and a desire for stereoscopic descriptions of reality. Here are the names of some of the thematic blocks that make up the structure of gender collections: "Changing value systems and status-role functions of men and women at critical stages of history and culture"; "Changing gender consciousness and women's struggle for equal rights and opportunities"; "Women's and men's interests in the context of socio-political and cultural changes". economic changes"; "Women in the political system of society and the legal aspect of gender relations"; "Mixed marriages and problems of fathers and children", etc.

Starting with the study of the phenomenon of multi-racial family-marriage relations and self-identification of mestizos, N. L. Krylova, E. S. Lvova, S. V. Prozhogin, E. B. Demintseva, T. V. Kudryavtseva and a number of other authors expanded their research interests by publishing several books and articles devoted to the analysis of the relationship of the sexes at the crossroads of cultures. The value of these studies has been enhanced by placing alongside them the works of our compatriots who married Africans many years ago and made a successful scientific career on a distant continent (Z. Ogundovole, Rubailo-Kudolo village) or who have lived for some time in multi-racial families (A. Davis, L. Ivanova, T. Kudryavtseva). Revealing the complexity of the relationship between the sexes at the "meeting" of different civilizations (African and Russian, African and European),

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the authors show that this not only leads to mutual enrichment and interpenetration of cultures, but also often creates, in the figurative expression of S. V. Prozhogina, a deep "dissonance" between them [Man and woman..., 2004]. This topic has been especially carefully analyzed by Russian experts in the field of African fiction-S. V. Prozhogina, N. Yu. Ilina, A.V. Milto, whose efforts created an independent historical and philological direction in gender studies within the framework of African studies.

In recent years, more and more emphasis has been placed on studying the status of women in the family and in society in the political and legal aspect in the context of Muslim cultures. Articles and chapters of the monograph by A.M. Vasiliev, E. B. Demintseva, S. V. Prozhogina, N. G. Romanova, S. N. Turk, and N. Z. Fakhrutdinova are devoted to the relationship between the sexes and the state's efforts to find ways to harmonize them [Vasiliev, 2008; Gender and Power..., 2008, pp. 21-43, 123 - 137, 290-358; Gender studies..., 2000, p. 97-108, 130-146; Demintseva, 2008; Man and woman..., 2004, p. 173-180].

Outside the framework of the "Gender Studies" series, Russian Africanists have published many works in recent years, which contain fragments devoted to various aspects of the place and role of men and women in various spheres of life and activity: in history and politics [Bondarenko, 1995; Yemelyanov and Myltsev, 1990; Kochakova, 2007; Ksenofontova and Rybalkina, 2000; Lvova, 2002; Early forms..., 2000; Symbols..., 1996; Chernetsov, 1991], in the context of ritual and stereotypical forms of male and female behavior GArsenyev, 1991; Kalinovskaya, 1989; Lapkina, 2005; Sinitsyna, 1997], in the relationship of man with the environment [Africa: ecological Review crisis..., 2001, p. 17 - 74, 132 - 171, 211 - 220].

A distinctive feature of many collective works is that they often use comparative materials related to both Russian and African societies. It turned out that in the economic, social and political processes currently taking place on the African continent and in Russia, we can find a lot in common, because both here and there we witnessed a change in socio-economic formations, the transition from the colonial to the postcolonial state of society, from the Soviet to the post-Soviet society [Gender and power..., 2008, pp. 376-430; Gender problems..., 2003, pp. 102-124; Man and woman..., 2004, pp. 345-423; Man and woman..., 2007, pp. 225-330].

A significant difference between Russian researchers and many Western feminologists is that they actively respond to the needs of the time and a number of representatives of African-American culture, who often reproach American and European feminists for often ignoring social, racial and ethnic differences among women in their practice and in the construction of scientific concepts. A well-known black researcher and writer, who writes under the pseudonym Bell Huque, says that it is unfair and biased that all such theories are based solely on white women - representatives of the middle class [Anthology..., 2000, pp. 236-253].

Russian Africanists I. G. Bolshoe, N. V. Grishina, N. A. Ksenofontova, N. F. Matveeva, E. S. Lvova, I. G. Rybalkina and many others, taking into account all these requirements, analyze in their articles and books the situation of African women belonging to all strata of society-from rural and urban lower classes to representatives of the intelligentsia and the political elite.

One of the most pressing problems that scientists have faced in recent years is the problem of power relations, which are a universal phenomenon and form the core of not only political systems, but also all interpersonal relationships, including gender ones. Power in traditional and modern African society, as V. V. Bocharov, N. M. Girenko, N. A. Ksenofontova and other Africanists have convincingly shown, reflects the principle of hierarchy between different social groups of people and representatives of both sexes. The problem of power is not always connected with violence and coercion. First of all, it is revealed as volitional dominance, leadership and authority, through which an individual seeks to find and manifest his identity, to fix his role in an integral social system [Anthropologiya..., 2006, p. 347 - 359, 377 - 381, 417 - 431; Gender and Power..., 2008; Ksenofontova, 2005; Ksenofontova, 2008 (1); Ksenofontova, 2008 (2)].

Revealing the problems of power through the prism of gender relations, Russian Africanists come to understand the need to consider African realities in the context of global history. And this implies their increased interest in general theoretical problems of gender science, which is reflected in a number of articles by L. A. Andreeva, M. L. Butovskaya,

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A. A. Kazankova, N. N. Ksenofontova, O. B. Maksimova [Gender and power..., 2008, pp. 9-17; Ksenofontova, 2004; Ksenofontova, 2007; Man and woman..., 2007; p. 9 - 46, 78 - 118, 134 - 143, 225 - 248, 270 - 288].

At the end of the last century and in the current years, domestic Africanists, who are more or less interested in gender issues, were able to obtain their own field material, traveling on business trips and expeditions to African countries, which significantly enriched the source base of gender studies. Our scientists managed to visit: Mali (V. R. Arsenyev), Nigeria (I. G. Bolshov, N. B. Kochakova), Tanzania (D. M. Bondarenko, M. L. Butovskaya, E. S. Lvova), Tunisia and Morocco (E. B. Demintseva, N. L. Krylova, S. V. Prozhogina, N. G. Romanov), Ethiopia (E. S. Lvova), South Africa (N. V. Grishina). The results of their observations were published in monographs and collections [Grishina, 2007; Interracial and interethnic relations..., 2008, p. 138-194; Man and woman..., 2007, p. 249-269; Muslims..., 2005, p. 71-115].

Concluding the review of works on gender issues in the framework of domestic African studies over the past 20 years, we can conclude that Russian scientists in their research on this topic have passed the same stages in the formation of gender science as their colleagues abroad and in related social sciences. The achievements of our specialists in this field, expressed in a significant number of published works, a variety of topics, and the foundation of their developments and conclusions, indicate that gender research has quite naturally received the status of an independent scientific field, which is characterized as a multi-component and interdisciplinary branch of knowledge that includes almost the entire spectrum of interaction between men and both in the global society and in private life.

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Africa's security: internal and external aspects. X Conference of African Studies (Moscow, May 24-26, 2005). Abstracts. Moscow: Institute of Africa of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2005.

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Kochakova N. B. Goroda-gosudarstva yorubov, Moscow: Nauka Publ., 1968.
Kochakova N. B. Rozhdenie afrikanskoi tsivilizatsii (Ife, Oyo, Benin, Dahomey) [The Birth of the African civilization (Ife, Oyo, Benin, Dahomey)].
Kochakova N. B. Sacred Ile-Ife: an Idealized Image and Historical Reality, Moscow: Institute of Africa of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2007.

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Krylova N. L. Children in Russian-African marriages. Fate. Culture. Future. New York: Edwin Melvin Press, 1999.

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