Six countries in East and South-East Asia are among the top ten exporters of ICT goods and electronic components (EC) (accounting for 3/4 of global EC exports). The author's analysis of EC exports from these countries showed that 4/5 of them represent mutual exports. In the production of electronic equipment in the region, global value chains have developed, which serve as a factor cementing regional economic integration at the level of microeconomics. In the export of computer equipment from these countries, the share of self-created added value is quite high.

Keywords: East and South-East Asia, export and import of ICT goods, electronic components, global value chains (GCS), intraregional division of labor, TNCs.

ASIAN COUNTRIES IN ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS EXPORTS AND IMPORTS AND GLOBAL VALUE CHAINS

Nina N. TSVETKOVA

Among 10 leading world exporters of ICT goods there are six countries of East and Southeast Asia (their part in world electronic components goods exports amounts to 3/4). The author's analysis shows that 4/5 of these six countries' electronic components exports are mutual exports. Global value chains have emerged in ICT goods production in the region, and they strengthen regional economic integration at microeconomics level. There is a rather high proportion of value added created in these countries in their computer goods exports.

Keywords: East and Southeast Asia, ICT goods exports and imports, electronic components, global value chains (GVC), intra-regional division of labor, TNC.

The international division of labor is deepening in the electronics industry, and the scale and structure of international trade in electronics shows the changing role of countries in the international division of labor (IDP). Individual stages of production of ICT goods 1 are being transferred to countries with low production costs,

TSVETKOVA Nina Nikolaevna-Candidate of Economic Sciences, Leading Researcher at the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences; vladtsvetkov@mail.ru.

Nina N. TSVETKOVA - PhD (in Economy), Leading Research Fellow, Institute of Oriental Studies, RAS, Moscow.

1 ICT goods - computer equipment and peripherals, telecommunications equipment, consumer electronics (TV sets, audio and video equipment), electronic components, and the "other" category (see, for example, UNCTAD [Bilateral trade flows by ICT goods categories..., 2015]).

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global value chains are being formed (global production chains, global value chains, GCS). The issue of GCS has recently been the focus of attention of international organizations-UNCTAD, WTO (World Investment Report, 2013; WTO. Trade in Value Added and Global Value Chains... 2016], foreign researchers such as T. Jereffi, V. Fang, R. Kaplinsky, R. Baldwin [Global Value Chains, 2013], domestic scientists [Kondratiev, 2015; Muradov, 2015, Sokolov, 2015]. How large is the share of real value added in the country in its exports? Or is it that the country, while carrying out assembly operations for foreign investors or customers from abroad, practically exports someone else's added value? Let's look at these issues through the prism of the participation of East and South-East Asian countries in international trade in ICT goods, primarily electronic components (EC).

Developing Asian countries joined the MRI in the electronics industry from the 1960s to the 1970s, when they began to transfer labor-intensive, export-oriented production of this industry from developed countries. The incentive for moving production to the East was the difference in salary levels, in accordance with the theory of absolute advantages of Adam Smith or the theory of comparative advantages of his follower David Ricardo. The basic idea of Ricardo's comparative advantage model is that " the benefits of trading depend on having a comparative advantage rather than an absolute one." "The competitive advantage of an industry depends not only on its superior labor productivity compared to foreign competitors, but also on the ratio of domestic and foreign salary levels." In the Ricardo model, a country exports goods that its workers produce relatively more efficiently, and imports products that its workers produce relatively less efficiently [Krugman and Obstfeld, 2004, p. 43, 57].

Developing countries have become the world's leading exporters of ICT goods. From 2000 to 2013, the share of developing countries in global exports of ICT goods increased from 42.9% to 72.8%, including developing countries in Asia-from 39% to 69.1% (calculated from sources in Figure 1). Most of the growth in the share of developing countries in world exports was due to Asia, and first mainly to South-East Asian countries, and later to East Asian countries.

In 2014, global exports of ICT goods reached $ 1,980 billion, an increase of only 3% compared to 2013. Eleven countries accounted for 83.7% of global exports: six countries and territories in East and Southeast Asia: China, Hong Kong (PRC), Singapore, Taiwan, the Republic of Korea, Malaysia, as well as the United States, Germany, Mexico, the Netherlands, and Japan (which was pushed back to 11th place). The top six countries in East and South-East Asia accounted for 63.8% of global exports of ICT goods (see Figure 2).

A significant part of the export of ICT goods (about 1/3 during 2000-2013) is made up of electronic components (EC). The high share of electronic components, components, and semi-finished products is a clear indication of the development of production specialization and the deepening of the international division of labor. In the context of globalization, a detailed and step-by-step division of labor is developing. In some countries, the production of various components is located, and the assembly of products is carried out in other countries. R & D work, knowledge-intensive components that define the "brand", are produced in developed countries and in new industrial countries of the first echelon, while simpler components are produced in countries with cheap labor. The division of labor becomes step - by - step; in the global value chain, one stage is carried out in one country, the next-in the second country, and even higher-in the third. Part-time and step-by-step division of labor can be simultaneously intra-company, when components are produced at enterprises of the same company.

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TNCs in different countries. The extent to which the intra-firm division of labor has become widespread is indicated by the fact that one-third of global exports has been steadily accounted for by intra-firm exports (sales of TNK branches in some countries to branches of the same TNK in other countries or to the parent company) for more than a decade. However, this division of labor includes not only branches, but also formally independent companies working for TNCs under production contracts.

Figure 1. Global exports of ICT goods, 2000-2013 (billion rubles) USD)

Составлено по: [Bilateral trade flows by ICT goods categories, annual, 2000-2013. Information Economy. URL: http://unctadstat.unctad.org/wds/TableViewer/tableView.aspx=15850 (accessed: 12.04.2015)].

Figure 2. Leading exporters of ICT goods, 2014 (%)

Составлено по: [Bilateral trade flows by ICT goods categories, annual, 2000-2014. Information Economy. URL: http://unctadstat.unctad.org/wds/TableViewer/tableView.aspx=15850 (date of request: 2.03.2016)].

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Figure 3. Leading electronic component exporters, 2014, share of global exports (%)

Составлено по: [Bilateral trade flows by ICT goods categories, annual, 2000-2014. Information Economy. URL: http://unctadstat.unctad.org/wds/TableViewer/tableView.aspx=15850 (date of request: 2.03.2016)].

TNCs "orchestrate" global value chains. In 2010, the share of TNCs in world exports reached 74%, including 1/3 of world exports accounted for intra-company exports, 1/3-for deliveries of TNCs to non-related partners, and 13% - for exports of non-operational forms of international production organization (IFOMP) [World Investment Report, 2013, p. 135]. In the countries of East and South-East Asia, TNCs have played a key role in developing the production of computer equipment and electronics. But TNCs in the Eastern countries are both Western TNCs and TNCs from the Eastern countries. The latter are widely represented in the electronics industry. GCS often use not only foreign direct investment in electronics production (creating new branches and buying up existing companies), but also NFOMP production contracts (see [Tsvetkova, 2012]).

In 2000, the world's EC exports accounted for $ 321.9 billion, 32.2% of exports of ICT goods The leading exporters of electronic components were the United States (20.5% of world exports), Japan (14.2%), Singapore (11.0%), Taiwan (8.1%), South Korea (7.9%), Malaysia (5.7%) Hong Kong (4.9%), Germany (4.3%), Thailand (2.2%). China (2.1% of EC exports) was not among the top ten EC exporters in 2000.

In 2014, global exports of electronic components totaled $ 667.5 billion, which doubled since 2000, but only by 1.5% compared to 2013 (a clear slowdown from 7% per year in 2000-2013). EC exports were even more concentrated than exports of ICT goods: 11 countries accounted for 93.5% of global E-commerce exports in 2014, including 7 Asian countries (the top six exporters of ICT goods + the Philippines) - 76.4% (see Figure 3).

In 2014, the leading exporters of electronic components were not the same countries as in 2000: China (16.1% of world exports), Hong Kong (15.0%), Singapore (14.8%), Taiwan (13.1%), the Republic of Korea (9.2%). All these Asian countries were ahead of their former leaders. The United States (6.7%) moved from first to sixth place, while Japan (5.6%) moved from second to eighth place. Malaysia (6.1%) was seventh, Germany (3.3%) was ninth, and the Philippines (2.1%) was tenth. The center of EC production for ICT goods has moved to the countries of East and South-East Asia.

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In both 2000 and 2013, among developed countries, only the United States and Japan were major exporters of EC to developing countries and East and South-East Asia, while other developed countries exported EC to the region in the range of $ 0.7 billion and the Netherlands in the range of $ 6.1 billion. in Germany [Bilateral trade flows..., 2015].

In 2000, the United States was the world's largest exporter of electronic components. Of the US exports of EC, 2/3 went to developing countries, including 1/2-to the countries of Southeast and East Asia, primarily to the Republic of Korea (18.9% of exports to Southeast Asia), Malaysia (17.7%), Taiwan (16.1%), the Philippines (15.2%), Singapore (12.4%), Hong Kong (9.3%). Only 1.7% of American EC exports to the region went to China. In 2013, exports of electronic components from the United States decreased by 1/3 compared to 2000, from $ 66.1 billion to $ 44.3 billion, and the share of the United States in global exports of electronic components decreased from 20.5% to 6.7%. 81.5% of US E-commerce exports went to developing countries, including 70.6% of the world's total exports of electronic components. - to the countries of East and South-East Asia. By 2013, US EC exports to East and South-East Asia (US $ 31.3 billion) It remained almost at the same level as in 2000 ($32.2 billion). Exports to China alone increased (4.5 times, to $ 4.8 billion, 15.3% of total exports). US exports of EC products to Malaysia (13.4% of exports), South Korea (12.1%), and Taiwan (5.9%) declined (calculated from Table 1).

In 2000, Japan was the world's second largest exporter of electronic components. Its EC exports totaled $ 45.8 billion, with 70.1% going to developing countries, including 67.9% to East and South-East Asia. The main markets for the export of electronic components from Japan in the region in 2000 were Hong Kong (18.0% of exports to SEEA), Singapore (16.1%), the Republic of Korea (15.1%), Taiwan

Table 1

Exports of electronic components from the United States and Japan to East and Southeast Asia, 2000, 2013 (USD billion)

USA

Japan

ICT goods USD billion

Incl. EC USD billion

ICT goods USD billion

Incl. EC USD billion

Years

2000

2013

2000

2013

2000

2013

2000

2013

All countries, incl.:

156.7

140.0

66.1

43.7

108.8

61.8

45.8

39.0

Developing countries

80.7

95.9

44.3

35.7

50.5

46.4

32.1

34.1

East Asia

26.0

26.4

15.3

14.4

26.7

33.7

16.5

25.0

Southeast Asia

21.9

14.7

16.9

10.2

20.8

10.7

14.6

8.4

China

3.3

9.7

1.0

4.8

5.4

15.6

2.8

10.6

Singapore

6.7

4.1

4.0

2.1

7.8

2.8

5.0

2.0

Hong Kong (China)

5.6

8.0

3.0

3.3

8.1

7.6

5.3

4.9

Taiwan

7.1

3.7

5.2

2.6

6.8

6.4

3.8

6.0

Republic of Korea

9.9

4.9

6.1

3.8

6.4

4.2

4.7

3.5

Malaysia

6.7

5.1

5.7

4.2

4.7

2.4

3.8

2.1

Vietnam

...

...

...

...

...

1.0

...

0.8

Thailand

2.8

2.2

2.2

1.4

2.8

2.6

2.1

1.9

Philippines

5.3

2.6

4.9

2.1

4.0

1.5

2.7

1.3

Составлено по: [Bilateral trade flows by ICT goods categories, annual, 2000-2013. Information Economy. URL: http://unctadstat.unctad.org/wds/TableViewer/tableView.aspx=15850 (accessed: 12.04.2015)].

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and Malaysia (12.2% each). China accounted for only 9% of component exports to the region (calculated in Table 1). By 2013, Japan had lost its position as the world's second-largest exporter of ICT goods: since 2000, its exports had fallen from $ 108.8 billion to $ 61.8 billion, by 43.2%, but its exports of EC had declined much less - by 15%, from $ 45.8 billion to $ 39.0 billion. The bulk of EC exports (87.4%) come from Japan to developing countries, with 85.6% going to East and Southeast Asia. The main export market for EC from Japan in 2013 was China ( 31.7% of EC exports to the region) , followed by Taiwan (18.0%), Hong Kong (14.7%), the Republic of Korea (10.5%), and Malaysia (6.3%) (calculated from Table 1).

Let's look at the mutual export of the EC of the six Asian countries-the leading exporters of ICT goods: China, Hong Kong, Republic of Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, and Malaysia. In 2000, the mutual export of electronic components of the six countries ($65.3 billion) exceeded by 30% the export of electronic components to the same countries from the United States and Japan ($50.4 billion). As early as in 2000, mutual exports accounted for 51.1% of EC exports from the six countries.

Singapore ranked third among the world's EC exporters in 2000 (11.0% of world exports), and was the first in the region. The six countries accounted for 49.9% of its EC exports, while Singapore's main export markets were neighboring Malaysia (23.5% of total EC exports), Taiwan (10.2%) and Hong Kong (8.8%). South Korea accounted for only 4.5% of EC exports, while China accounted for 3.1%. In 2000, Taiwan was the world's fourth largest exporter of EC (8.1% of global exports). Taiwan accounted for 55.7% of these exports to the six countries, while Hong Kong (24.0% of exports to all countries of the world) and Singapore (11.5%) were the leading recipients of exports. Less important export destinations were the Republic of Korea (5.7%), Malaysia (5.0%), and China (3.1%).

In 2000, South Korea ranked fifth in the world in terms of EC exports (7.9% of world exports). The six countries accounted for 42.4% of its EC exports. South Korea exported approximately equal amounts of EC to Singapore (10.6% of total EC exports), Hong Kong and Taiwan (9% each), and China (7.1%) and Malaysia (6.6%) were ranked second. Malaysia was the sixth largest exporter of EC in 2000 (5.7% of world exports). It exported 49.7% of its EC exports to the six countries, including 31.6% to Singapore, 6.5% to Taiwan, 5.9% to Hong Kong, and 2.7% to South Korea.

Hong Kong's EC exports in 2000 totaled $ 15.8 billion, 69.6% went to the six countries, 44.9% went to China, 9.5% to Taiwan, 7.0% to the Republic of Korea, and 5.7% each to Singapore and Malaysia. China's EC exports in 2000 were insignificant ($6.6 billion, 2.1% of world exports), 57.6% of which went to the six countries, including 36.4% to Hong Kong. Singapore's exports to other top six countries were the largest, followed by Taiwan, Hong Kong, South Korea, and Malaysia. The six countries were significantly ahead of the United States and Japan in terms of EC exports to China, Singapore, and Hong Kong. Exports of EK to South Korea from Japan ($4.7 billion) and the United States ($6.1 billion) in total exceeded exports from all six countries ($5.5 billion). In Taiwan, the total export of ECS from Japan and the United States ($9.0 billion) was equal to exports from the six countries ($8.9 billion).

By 2013, the situation had changed dramatically. Exports of EC from 6 SEACOAST countries increased 4-fold compared to 2000 and reached $ 480.6 billion (73.1% of world EC exports), which was almost 6-fold higher than the combined exports of EC from the leading developed exporting countries, the United States and Japan ($83.3 billion). The total export of EC to SEVA from other developed exporting countries of any significance: Germany, France, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom was only $ 10.0 billion, which corresponded to the level of exports from the Philippines alone.

81.9% of EC exports from the six countries were sent to the Southeast Asian countries, and mutual exports of the six countries accounted for 78.8%. The largest exporter of EC is

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In 2013, it was China ($130.4 billion), and its export of EC increased almost 20-fold in 2000-2013. 82.9% of these exports went to the Southeast Asian countries, 80.2% - to the six countries. The lion's share of the latter (77.0%) was sent to the Hong Kong Special Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China.

Table 2

Mutual export of electronic components from 6 countries of East and South-East Asia: main directions, 2000, 2013 (USD billion)

Export destinations

Exporting countries, EC exports, USD billion

All 6 countries

China

Singapore

Hong Kong

Taiwan

Republic of Korea

Malaysia

2000

Total of 6 countries,
including

127.9

6.6

35.3

15.8

26.2

25.5

18.5

To 6 SEEA countries

65.3

3.8

17.6

11.0

12.9

10.8

9.2

Share of 6 countries, %

51.1

57.6

49.9

69.6

49.2

42.4

49.7

China

11.1

X

1.0

7.1

0.8

1.8

0.4

Singapore

12.9

0.5

X

0.9

3.0

2.7

5.8

Hong Kong

15.2

2.4

3.1

X

6.3

2.3

1.1

Taiwan

8.9

0.3

3.6

1.5

X

2.3

1.2

Republic of Korea

5.5

0.6

1.6

1.1

1.5

X

0.7

Malaysia

11.7

...

8.3

0.4

1.3

1.7

X

2013

Total from 6 countries

480.6

130.4

91.2

87.3

76.7

58.0

37.0

To 6 SEEA countries

378.5

104.6

64.4

78.5

62.1

45.0

23.9

Share of 6 countries,%

78.8

80.2

70.6

89.9

81.0

77.6

64.6

China

140.5

X

18.3

71.5

18.9

23.1

8.7

Singapore

31.5

5.2

X

1.4

12.0

5.5

7.4

Hong Kong

142.0

80.5

22.9

X

21.3

11.9

5.4

Taiwan

25.5

9.5

7.8

2.8

X

3.8

1.6

Republic of Korea

23.8

6.4

7.3

2.3

7.0

X

0.8

Malaysia

15.2

3.0

8.1

0.5

2.9

0.7

X

Составлено по: [Bilateral trade flows by ICT goods categories, annual, 2000-2013. Information Economy. URL: http://unctadstat.unctad.org/wds/TableViewer/tableView.aspx=15850 (accessed: 12.04.2015)].

In 2013, China was a priority destination for EC exports from Hong Kong ($71.5 billion), the Republic of Korea ($23.1 billion), Taiwan ($18.9 billion), and Singapore ($18.3 billion). For comparison, the export of EC to China from the United States was $ 4.8 billion, from Japan - $ 10.6 billion. China accounted for 81.9% of all EC exports from Hong Kong, 39.7% from the Republic of Korea, 24.1% from Taiwan, and 20.1% from Singapore. 37.1% of the 6 countries ' mutual exports ($140.5 billion) went to China and another 37.6% ($142.5 billion) to Hong Kong. Hong Kong re-exports electronic components accumulated from various countries in the region to mainland China. Formally, some of the leading Chinese companies established in China, in particular ZTE, are considered Hong Kong companies. If estimates are made based on re-exports (for example, WTO), then the share of Hong Kong in international trade in ICT goods, in general, and EC decreases sharply.

In general, from 2000 to 2013, trade in ICT goods, and in particular electronic components, between the countries of East and South-East Asia sharply intensified: mutual exports of ECS of the six countries increased from $ 65.3 billion to $ 378.5 billion.

page 79
USD, by 6 times. The six countries accounted for 89.9% of Hong Kong's exports, 81.0% of Taiwan's, 80.2% of China's, 77.6% of South Korea's, 70.6% of Singapore's, and 64.6% of Malaysia's exports. It was the six countries that became the main sources of export flows for each other in 2013 (see Table 2 [Tsvetkova, 2015]).

It can be argued that an intraregional division of labor in the production of ICT goods has developed in SEVA. All 6 countries acted as exporters of EC and exchanged them with each other. China, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Taiwan had the largest exports of ECS to the region. Most of the EC export flows were directed to China and Hong Kong, with the other four countries acting as their suppliers. At the same time, there was an exchange of EC supplies between other countries: from Taiwan - to Singapore and South Korea, from South Korea - to Singapore, to Taiwan, from Singapore - to Taiwan, to Malaysia, South Korea, from Malaysia - to Singapore.

If we do not take into account the mutual trade of the PRC with its Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, which, strictly speaking, is not international, then the figures for export of EC and mutual export of EC in 2013 for the six countries will noticeably decrease: they will amount to $ 321.6 billion and $ 237.5 billion, respectively. The share of exports to the six countries in China will fall to 48.3%, in Hong Kong - to 70.6% (although this export itself will be insignificant: $ 7.0 billion). However, the share of mutual exports of all 6 countries in their total EC exports remains very high (73.8%). China (29.1%) and Hong Kong (26.3%) were still the main export destinations for ECS in 2013, accounting for 55.4% of the six countries ' mutual EC exports.

Thus, the division of labor exists rather between the PRC and Malaysia, on the one hand, and South Korea, Taiwan, and Singapore, which supply it with EC, on the other. Hong Kong also plays the role of an intermediary, a re-export center. Along with this, the mutual exports of South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, and to a lesser extent Malaysia stand out in relief. Singapore receives EC supplies from Taiwan ($12.0 billion), Malaysia ($7.4 billion), and South Korea ($5.5 billion), which is much higher than EC exports to Singapore from the United States and Japan ($2.1 billion and $ 2.0 billion, respectively). Taiwan is an important destination for exports of EC from China ($9.5 billion) and Singapore ($7.8 billion), which exceeds exports of EC from Japan ($6.0 billion). South Korea's export of EC to Taiwan ($3.8 billion) is higher than that of the United States ($2.6 billion). South Korea serves as a market for EC exports from Singapore ($7.3 billion), Taiwan ($7.0 billion), and China ($6.4 billion), and their exports are higher than those of the United States ($3.8 billion) and Japan ($3.5 billion). Singapore exports primarily to Malaysia ($8.1 billion), followed by the United States ($4.2 billion). Malaysia is known to play the role of an assembly workshop for American corporations. China (US $ 3.0 billion) and South Korea (US $ 2.9 billion) are ahead of Japan (US $ 2.1 billion) in terms of EC exports to Malaysia.

The division of labor between China and Malaysia, on the one hand, and the Republic of Korea, Taiwan, and Singapore, on the other, is based on comparative advantages. So far, labor in mainland China, despite its rising cost, is noticeably cheaper than in these three countries. The division of labor that develops between the first-tier NIS-Taiwan, Singapore, and South Korea-is based not on comparative advantages, but on the scale effect studied by P. Krugman in intra-industry trade, which plays a leading role in international trade between EU countries and between developed countries in general (it is for studying this issue that P. Krugman in 2008, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics). Labor in Belgium or Germany is not significantly different in value from labor in France or the Netherlands. These countries specialize in the production of certain types of engineering products and exchange these products, benefiting from economies of scale. P. Krugman and M. Obstfeld write:

page 80
Table 3

Mutual export of electronic components from East and South-East Asia: main directions, 2000, 2013 (excluding mutual export of mainland China and Hong Kong)

Exporters / Export direction

All 6 countries

China

Singapore

Hong Kong

Taiwan

Republic of Korea

Malaysia

2000

To all countries

118.4

4.2

35.3

8.7

26.2

25.5

18.5

To 6 countries

55.8

1.4

17.6

3.9

12.9

10.8

9.2

Share of 6 countries

47.1%

China

4.0

X

1.0

X

0.8

1.8

0.4

Singapore

12.9

0.5

X

0.9

3.0

2.7

5.8

Hong Kong

12.8

X

3.1

X

6.3

2.3

1.1

Taiwan

8.9

0.3

3.6

1.5

X

2.3

1.2

Republic of Korea

5.5

0.6

1.6

1.1

1.5

X

0.7

Malaysia

11.7

...

8.3

0.4

1.3

1.7

X

2013

To all countries

321.6

49.9

91.2

8.8

76.7

58.0

37.0

To 6 countries

237.5

24.1

64.4

7.0

62.1

45.0

23.9

Share of 6 countries

73.8

48.3

70.6

79.5

81.0

77.6

64.6

China

69.0

X

18.3

X

18.9

23.1

8.7

Singapore

31.5

5.2

X

1.4

12.0

5.5

7.4

Hong Kong

62.5

X

22.9

X

21.3

11.9

5.4

Taiwan

25.5

9.5

7.8

2.8

X

3.8

1.6

Republic of Korea

23.8

6.4

7.3

2.3

7.0

X

0.8

Malaysia

15.2

3.0

8.1

0.5

2.9

0.7

X

Составлено по: [Bilateral trade flows by ICT goods categories, annual, 2000-2013. Information Economy. URL: http://unctadstat.unctad.org/wds/TableViewer/tableView.aspx=15850 (12.04.2015)].

"International trade does not necessarily arise from a comparative advantage. In particular, it can be established as a result of the effect of increasing profitability or the effect of scale of production, i.e. if there is a tendency to reduce the cost of manufacturing a unit of production with an increase in production volume. Economies of scale give countries an incentive to specialize and trade, even if there are no differences in the resources and technologies available to them." "International trade contributes to the creation of a unified market that exceeds the size of any single country, and thus simultaneously creates the opportunity to offer consumers a wider range of trade at lower prices." "Two-way trade in differentiated goods within an industry is called intra-industry trade; trade involving the exchange of goods from one industry for goods from another is inter-industry trade. Intra-industry trade reflects the scale effect of production; inter-industry trade reflects the effect of comparative advantage "[Krugman, Obstfeld, 2004, pp. 188-189].

If one country exports EC and imports finished products, and the other country imports EC and exports the assembled finished products to the first country, then it is rather a question of simultaneously using a comparative advantage (cheap labor).

page 81
force) and the effect of scale. Intra-industry trade can hide trade based on comparative advantages. P. Krugman and M. Obstfeld note:

"The growth of trade between high-and low-wage countries leads to the fact that this trade is often classified as intra-industry, even though it is generated by the presence of a comparative advantage... Let's say an American company makes complex chips in California and then ships them to Asia, where they build computers based on them, which are then sent back to America. Both exported chips and imported computers are likely to be classified as "computers and their components", so such transactions can be considered as a case of intra-industry trade... Nevertheless, what is really happening here is the American export of high-tech products (microchips) and the import of products that require a lot of labor (for assembling computers). Such "pseudo-intra-industry" trade is often carried out between the United States and Mexico" (Krugman and Obstfeld, 2004, p.169).

Such trade, specialization and cooperation are developing today between the countries of East and South-East Asia. Comparative advantages, pseudo-intra-industry trade, and economies of scale are also used. The regional division of labor involves not only 6 countries in the top ten exporters. The Republic of Korea is expanding its EK exports to Vietnam ($3.6 billion in 2013), and a branch of South Korea's Samsung Electronics has been established there. Exports of EC to Vietnam from Singapore ($2.0 billion) and China ($1.3 billion) are significant, and they are much higher than exports of EC from Japan ($0.8 billion). Major exporters of EC to the Philippines are South Korea ($2.4 billion), ahead of the United States, Taiwan ($1.9 billion), and Singapore ($1.0 billion). Exports of EC to Thailand are carried out by Singapore ($3.2 billion), Japan and the United States are in second and third places: $ 1.9 billion and $ 1.4 billion, and Taiwan is in fourth place ($1.2 billion). At the same time, the Philippines and Thailand themselves supply electronic equipment to the world market, while Vietnam specializes in the export of telecommunications equipment.

So, developed countries have ceased to be the leading suppliers of EC to Asian countries. There is an intraregional division of labor in the production of ICT goods in the BA and Southeast Asian countries, almost all countries export various components, some also specialize in the supply of finished products, and this division of labor is based not only on traditional comparative advantages, but also on the use of economies of scale in intra-industry trade. The participation of the United States and Japan in the export of EC to SEEA has decreased or rather "frozen", but they, and other developed countries, retain their enormous scientific and technical superiority. We must not forget whose brands are produced in Asian countries. Yes, the United States has reduced its exports of EC, slightly increased exports of finished ICT goods, but the international production of branches of American TNCs exceeds US exports by 4 times. And these are only branches, not to mention inactive forms of organizing international production. Today, the leading developed countries produce and export robots and automated systems rather than ECS. The United States "hands over" to a number of Asian and Latin American countries standardized production of mass-market goods, while maintaining a strategic partnership with their companies, even buying out their enterprises from American TNCs (for example, cooperation between the Chinese Lenovo and the American IBM). At the same time, American companies and research centers themselves focus their efforts on innovative areas, such as robotics.

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ASIAN COUNTRIES: EXPORT AND IMPORT OF ICT AND EC GOODS

The traditional question that economists ask is: if a country imports electronic components and exports finished products assembled from them, how much value is added in such assembly production. How much does the export of ICT goods exceed their import? Are Asian countries net exporters of ICT goods? To answer this question, we will compare the volume of imports and exports of ICT goods over different years, including by individual categories, in particular, highlighting electronic components.

Taiwan was a net exporter of ICT goods in 2000-2013, with its surplus growing from $ 24.1 billion to $ 56.4 billion. It has also been a net exporter of electronic components since 2000. South Korea was a net exporter of ICT goods in 2000-2013, and its surplus increased from $ 36.6 billion to $ 53.3 billion, and throughout the period it is also a net exporter of EC. Exports of ICT goods also significantly exceeded Singapore's imports, with a surplus of between $ 20 billion and $ 30 billion. Net exports of EC from Singapore and South Korea increased significantly in 2005-2013.

Malaysia specialized mainly in assembly operations within the framework of MRI, and TNCs from developed countries established branches for assembling electronics. In 2000 and 2005, its EC trade balance was negative; in 2013, EC exports exceeded imports. It was a net exporter of ICT goods throughout the entire period under review.

While five of the top six exporting countries (excluding Hong Kong), Thailand, the Philippines, and Vietnam increased their exports of ICT goods in 2000-2013, Indonesia, on the contrary, reduced its exports of ICT goods and sharply increased its imports to meet the growing needs of the domestic market.

In 2000, China's imports of ICT goods ($45 billion) exceeded its exports ($44 billion) by only 2%. The country that specialized in the assembly of finished products had a negative balance in the external trade of the EC, which was not covered by the export of finished products. However, by 2005 the situation had changed dramatically, with exports of ICT goods exceeding imports by 40%. In 2013, exports of ICT goods ($605 billion) exceeded their imports ($400 billion) by 50%. According to the EC, the balance was negative, but it was more than covered by revenues from the export of finished products.

Thus, among the six Asian countries that are the leading exporters of ICT goods in 2013, five were net exporters of ICT goods, with the value of exports exceeding the value of imports by 1/2 for China, South Korea, Taiwan, 1/3 for Singapore, and 1/4 for Malaysia. Only Hong Kong (PRC) was a net importer of ICT goods from these six countries, which is due to its special position as a re-export trade center within the PRC (see Table 4).

In the modern economy, no country, even the largest and most developed, can produce the entire range of machine-building and electronic products, especially with a positive scale effect. Countries, including developed ones, specialize in the production of certain ICT goods, finished products or electronic components, and then exchange their products through foreign trade channels. In 2013, EC accounted for 68.8% of China's imports of ICT goods ($400.7 billion). Taiwan accounted for 29.3% of EC imports to China, South Korea accounted for 19.7%, Hong Kong accounted for 13.8%, Malaysia accounted for 11.7%, and Singapore accounted for 2.6%, and the bulk of EC came to China (77.1%). Japan (6.7% of EC imports) and the United States (5.6%) did not play a leading role in EC supplies to China.

Imports of ICT goods to Hong Kong amounted to $ 240.9 billion, including EQ imports - 43.2%. 3/4 of imports from China were finished products, 1/4-EQ. Of the EC imports to Hong Kong, 31.3% came from China, 19.4% - from Taiwan (EC accounted for imports from it

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4/5), 17.4% - from Singapore (the share of EC in imports is 85.4%), 8.1% - from South Korea (the share of EC is 73.7%), 6% - from Japan, 5.8% - from Malaysia (the share of EC is 3/4), 3.6% - from the United States. Hong Kong mainly imports finished ICT products from China (it is, among other things, a major center of duty-free trade in the region). Finished ICT products account for more than 50% of imports from the United States and Japan. From Taiwan, Singapore, South Korea, and Malaysia, Hong Kong mainly imports ECS. The share of developed countries in the import of EC goods to Hong Kong is insignificant, the US and Japan together accounted for only 9.6%.

Table 4

Import and export of ICT goods, 2000-2013 (USD billion)

2000

2005

2013

export

import

balance sheet

export

import

balance sheet

export

import

balance sheet

China: ICT Products

44.1

45.5

-1.4

234.1

166.8

+67.3

605.8

400.7

+205.1

EQ

6.6

22.5

-15.9

25.5

101.6

-76.1

130.4

275.7

-145.3

Hong Kong: ICT Products

50.3

59.6

-9.3

111.9

114.7

-2.8

222.3

240.9

-18.6

EQ

15.8

21.5

-5.7

34.4

45.6

-11.1

87.3

104.1

-16.8

Taiwan: ICT products

62.9

38.8

+24.1

62.1

39.6

+22.5

105.6

49.2

+56.4

EQ

26.2

23.7

+2.5

33.6

28.7

4.9

76.7

35.7

+41.0

South Korea: ICT products

59.4

36.6

+22.8

85.3

39.8

+45.5

107.1

53.8

+53.3

EQ

25.5

21.1

+4.4

29.1

25.6

3.5

58.0

35.8

+22.2

Singapore: ICT Products

75.8

54.9

+20.9

104.4

75.8

+28.6

122.8

92.8

+30

EQ

35.3

31.6

+3.7

55.2

43.2

+12

91.2

65.2

+26

Malaysia: ICT products

51.7

33.3

+18.4

61.4

47.5

13.9

64.4

46.6

+17.8

EQ

18.5

25.4

-6.9

25.0

29.4

-4.4

37.0

32.5

+4.5

Thailand: ICT Products

19.7

14.6

5.1

25.8

20.5

5.3

35.6

28.3

+7.3

EQ

7.1

8.8

-1.7

8.3

10.4

-2.1

9.1

12.0

-2.9

Philippines: ICT Products

14.8

14.1

0.7

19.7

22.7

-3

17.1

15.1

+2

EQ

6.3

9.7

-3.4

11.0

17.4

-6.4

11.9

11.0

+0.9

Indonesia: ICT Products

7.6

0.7

6.9

6.9

2.1

4.7

6.6

13.2

-6.6

EQ

0.9

0.1

0.8

1.4

0.2

0.8

1.0

2.6

-1.6

Vietnam: ICT Products

0.8

0.7

0.1

0.9

2.2

-1.3

32.4

26.3

+6.1

EQ

0.2

0.2

0

0.2

0.6

-0.4

2.7

12.4

-9.7

Составлено по: [Bilateral trade flows by ICT goods categories, annual, 2000-2013. Information Economy. URL: http://unctadstat.unctad.org/wds/TableViewer/tableView.aspx=15850 (12.04.2015)].

page 84
Table 5

Asian partners in the import of ICT goods (including electronic components, EC), 2013 (billion rubles) USD)

Importers

All imports, including from the following countries:

China

Taiwan

South Korea

Hong Kong

Malaysia

Singapore

Philippines

Thailand

Vietnam

Japan

USA

Other countries

China

Herm.

ICT products

400.7

X

88.5

73.9

97.4

36.2

8.8

11.7

11.7

6.6

25.5

18.2

4.6

EQ

275.7

X

80.9

54.4

38.0

32.2

7.2

6.5

3.8

2.8

18.8

15.4

3.4

Hong Kong

Netherlands.

ICT products

240.9

128.3

25.4

11.8

X

8.0

21.2

4.2

5.8

3.4

11.9

9.2

1.1

EQ

104.1

32.6

20.2

8.4

X

6.0

18.1

3.0

2.2

0.1

6.2

3.7

0.1

Taiwan

Herm.

ICT products

49.2

15.7

X

5.2

0.2

2.2

4.6

1.3

0.9

1.0

7.0

3.2

0.7

EQ

35.7

7.1

X

4.8

0.1

1.8

4.4

1.0

0.5

0.6

6.4

2.7

0.5

South Korea

Herm.

ICT products

53.8

17.7

10.1

0.9

2.1

5.2

1.2

1.1

0.5

6.2

5.0

1.3

EQ

358

7.5

9.6

0.6

1.2

4.7

1.0

0.5

0.1

5.1

3.9

1.0

Singapore

Herm.

ICT products

92.8

19.8

21.6

12.6

0.7

12,8

X

4.1

2.2

0.9

3.6

5.4

1.8

EQ

65.2

8.0

20.3

12.0

0.2

8.8

X

3.8

1.1

0.2

2.4

3.1

1.5

Malaysia

Herm.

ICT products

46.6

11.6

4,9

2.5

1.4

X

4.6

0.7

1.8

2.7

3.5

5.6

1.8

EQ

32.5

5.8

4.3

2.0

0.5

X

3.4

0.65

0.7

1.6

3.0

4.8

1.7

Philippines

Herm.

ICT products

15.1

1.4

2.1

0.7

0.7

0.7

1.5

X

0.7

0.06

1.6

3.5

1.1

EQ

11.0

0.1

1.9

0.6

0.2

0.5

0.9

X

0.5

0.9

3.2

1.0

Thailand

Herm.

ICT products

28.3

10.3

2.4

1.1

0.2

3.9

1.3

0.8

X

1.2

2.9

1.8

0.3

EQ

12.0

1.7

2.0

0.8

0.1

1.2

1.0

0.5

X

0.03

2.2

1.1

0.2

Vietnam

Irish

ICT products

26.3

11.0

0.9

7.4

0.04

0.9

1.8

0.42

0.3

X

1.4

0.6

0.8

EQ

12.4

1.8

0.7

4.4

0.01

0.5

1.7

0.4

0.2

X

1.2

0.5

0.7

Составлено по: [Bilateral trade flows by ICT goods categories, annual, 2000-2014. Information Economy. URL: http://unctadstat.unctad.org/wds/TableViewer/tableView.aspx=15850 (12.04.2015)].

page 85
Singapore's imports of ICT goods reached $ 92.8 billion in 2013, accounting for 70.3% of all exports. The main sources of EC imports were Taiwan - 31.1% (EC share in imports - 94.0%); South Korea-18.4% (EC share-95.2%), Malaysia-13.5% (EC share-68.8%), China-12.3% (EC share-40.4%), 75.3% of EC imports it accounted for these 4 countries. Finished products were also imported from China and Malaysia.

Imports of ICT goods to South Korea reached $ 53.8 billion, with EC accounting for 66.5%. Most of the EC imports came from Taiwan - 26.8%, China-20.9%, Japan-14.2%, Singapore-13.1%, the United States-10.9%, Germany and the Philippines - 2.8% each. The SEEA countries listed above accounted for 64% of EC exports, while developed countries accounted for 28%. Finished ICT products came mainly from China. The share of EC in imports from Taiwan was 95.0%, from Singapore-90.4%, from Japan-82.3%, from the USA-78.0%, from China-42.3%.

Imports of ICT goods to Taiwan in 2013 reached $ 49.2 billion, including EC - 72.6%. The leading partners in EC imports were China ( 19.9% of imports), Japan (17.9%), South Korea (13.4%), Singapore (12.3%), and the United States (7.6%). The share of EC in imports from Singapore was 95.7%, from South Korea-92.3%, from Japan-91.4%, from the USA-84.4%, from China-45.2%. Almost all of these countries, except China, imported only components. The PRC was a supplier of both EC and finished ICT products. The bulk of ECS were imported from China, South Korea, and Singapore (a total of 45.8% of imports), which was higher than imports of ECS from Japan and the United States (a total of 28.6%).

Imports of ICT goods to Malaysia reached $ 46.6 billion, including EC - 69.7%; ($32.5 billion). China (17.8%), the United States (14.8%), Taiwan (13.2%), Singapore (10.5%), Japan (9.2%), and South Korea (7.7%) were the leading partners in EC imports. In the import of ICT goods, the share of ECS was 87.8% for Taiwan, 85.7% for the United States and Japan, 73.9% for Singapore, and 50% for China. The United States and Japan accounted for 25% of EC imports, while China, Taiwan, Singapore, and South Korea accounted for 49.2%.

For almost all the six countries, the main sources of imports of ICT goods in general and EC were the countries of their own region. Taiwan, South Korea, and Singapore export mainly EC. But ECS also account for the majority of their imports of ICT goods: 72.6, 66.5, and 70.3%, respectively. Such a high share of semi-finished products in both exports and imports indicates a developed regional division of labor, the development of industrial cooperation and the inclusion of countries in global value chains.

EAST AND SOUTH-EAST ASIAN COUNTRIES AND GLOBAL VALUE CHAINS

The six countries are actively involved in global value chains. According to the WTO (2016), in 2011, 48.0% of developed countries 'exports and 48.6% of developing countries' exports were linked to global value chains (GVCs). This share was 62.1% for the Republic of Korea, 67.6% for Taiwan, 61.6% for Singapore, and 60.4% for Malaysia. In China, the level of participation in GCS is equal to the average for developing countries (47.7%), while in Hong Kong it was slightly lower than the average (43.6%) (see Figure 4).

Participation in GCS is characterized by two indicators: backward, downward links - the share of foreign value added in exports; direct, upward links - the share of exports that are subsequently processed in third countries. The six countries of East and South-East Asia had particularly developed feedback loops, while the level of direct links was less high. The share of foreign value added in exports was particularly high in Taiwan ( 43.5%), Singapore (41.7%), the Republic of Korea (41.6%), Malaysia (40.6%), and China (32.1%).

The above data applies to all industries in general. According to UNCTAD, the share of foreign value added among various industries is

page 86
In the value of exports, the highest was in the production of computer, office equipment (45%), automobiles (37%), radios, televisions ("consumer electronics") and telecommunications equipment (36%). In the oil industry, for example, the share of foreign value added is only 5% [World Investment Report, 2013, p. 128].

Figure 4. Country participation in global value chains, 2011 (% of exports)

Compiled from: [WTO. Trade in Value Added and Global Value Chains (2016)].

According to the WTO data (2016), the share of value added produced abroad in the value of computer equipment and electronics exports reached 40.1% in Singapore, 42.2% in the Republic of Korea, 44.6% in Taiwan, 55% in China, and 66.8% in Malaysia in 2011. This data can also be interpreted in other ways: the glass may be half empty or half full. The share of added value created in the country in the export of computer equipment in 2011 was 33.2% in Malaysia (as already mentioned, it is called the electronics assembly workshop for TNCs), 45% in China (which is quite a lot), 55.4% in Taiwan, 57.8% in South Korea, and 59.9% in Singapore. To assess the participation of a country and industry in global supply chains, another indicator is also used - upward links, the share of corresponding products in the total export of goods for further processing in other countries. This share was especially significant in Taiwan (26%), whose companies export EC and organize assembly plants in countries with cheap labor, in particular in China, and now in Vietnam. In second place was the Republic of Korea (16.7%), in third - Singapore (14%). In Malaysia and China, which also export components, this share was lower - 10.6% and 8.2% (see Figure 5).

The model of mutual trade in electronic components in the SEEA region indicates the deepening of regional integration at the microeconomics level, the expansion of cooperation between enterprises, the development of a detailed, step-by-step division of labor, and industrial cooperation of enterprises, although it is not always the case

page 87
It fits into the framework of regional associations (ASEAN, China + ASEAN (CAFTA), South Korea + ASEAN, and ASEAN+3). Taiwan is excluded from these associations for political reasons, but as can be seen from the dynamics of E-commerce exports, it is very actively involved in the processes of regional integration at the microeconomics level; there is very close cooperation between Taiwanese and Chinese ICT enterprises. The level of export supplies of EC from Taiwan to Hong Kong, China, Singapore, the Republic of Korea, and the Philippines is also very high. Hong Kong plays the role of a re-export center for ICT products from Taiwan in their promotion to the Chinese market [Tsvetkova, 2015]. But Taiwanese companies do just fine without intermediaries. For example, "Hong Hai "or" Pegatron " have a whole network of branches in China. At the same time, the beginning of global chains is often found in the United States, Japan, where advanced technologies are being developed, today - robots and artificial intelligence.

Figure 5. Global value chains in the export of computer equipment and electronics in East and South-East Asia, 2011

Compiled by the author from: [WTO. Trade in Value Added and Global Value Chains (2016)].

The contribution of value added created in the country to the export of computer equipment from SEEA countries was not so small: from 32% in Malaysia to 45% in China and 60% in Singapore.

The mutual export of the leading EC exporters is from 3/4 to 4/5 of their EC exports. Value chains do not always coincide with the borders of regional economic associations. However, global value chains serve as a cementing factor for regional economic integration.

What are the prospects for GCS in the electronics industry? New technologies, in particular robotics, 3D/4D printing, artificial intelligence, and general artificial intelligence ("technological singularity") can have a breakthrough impact on the development of not just GCS or the production of ICT goods in the Eastern countries, but on all socio-economic processes in these countries and on their position in the MRI.

page 88
As a result of the development of automation and artificial intelligence, some GCS can transform into highly automated production in one country, "shrink". Incentives to fragment production and move it to developing countries may disappear. However, this is a completely different conversation.

list of literature

Muradov K. Russia-ASEAN: Trade and Global Production Chains // World economy and International relations. 2015, No. 8. pp. 25-39.

Kondratiev V. World economy as a system of global value chains // World economy and International relations. 2015, No. 3. pp. 5-17.

Krugman P., Obstfeld M. Mezhdunarodnaya ekonomika [International Economics], St. Petersburg: Piter Publ., 2004, 831 p.

Sokolov V. Mezhdunarodnye proizvodstvennye tsepey v APR [International production chains in the Asia-Pacific Region]. 2015, No. 3. pp. 48-55.

Tsvetkova N. N. TNCs in the countries of the East: FDI and global production networks // Eastern analytics. Yearbook 2012, Moscow: IV RAS, 2012, pp. 76-84.

Tsvetkova N. N. Export of ICT goods from Eastern countries and shifts in the international division of labor // Ekonomicheskie, sotsial'no-politicheskie, etno-confessional'nye problemy afro-asiaticheskikh stran [Economic, socio-political, ethno-confessional problems of Afro-Asian countries].

Bilateral trade flows by ICT goods categories, annual, 2000-2013. Information Economy. URL: http://unctadstat.unctad.org/wds/TableViewer/tableView.aspx=15850 (accessed: 12.04.2015).

Bilateral trade flows by ICT goods categories, annual, 2000-2014. Information Economy. URL: http://unctadstat.unctad.org/wds/TableViewer/tableView.aspx=15850 (date of request: 2.03.2016).

Global Value Chains in a Changing World. Ed. by D. K. Elms and P. Low. WTO, Fung Global Institute and the Temasek Foundation, 2013. 410 p.

World Investment Report 2013. Global Value Chains: Investment and Trade for Development. N.Y.; Geneva: UNCTAD, 2013. 236 p.

WTO. Trade in Value Added and Global Value Chains. URL: https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/statis_e/miwi (accessed: 20.03.2016).

REFERENCES

Muradov K. Rossiya - ASEAN: torgovlya i global'nye proizvodstvennye cepochki // Mirovaia ekonomika i mezhdunarodnye otnosheniia. 2015, N 8, pp. 25-39.

Kondrat'ev V. Mirovaya ehkonomika kak sistema global'nyh cepochek stoimosti // Mirovaia ekonomika i mezhdunarodnye otnosheniia. 2015, N 3, pp. 5-17.

Krugman P. R., Obstfeld M. Mezhdunarodnaya ehkonomika. Sankt-Petersburg: Piter, 2004. 831 pp.

Tsvetkova N. N. TNK v stranah Vostoka: PII i global'nye proizvodstvennye seti // Vostochnaya analitika. Ezhegodnik 2012 g. Moscow: IV RAN, 2012. Pp. 76-84.

Tsvetkova N. N. Eksport tovarov IKT iz stran Vostoka i sdvigi v mezhdunarodnom razdelenii truda // Ekonomicheskie, social'no-politicheskie, ehtnokonfessional'nye problemy afro-aziatskih stran: pamyati V.G. Rastyannikova. Moscow: IV RAN, 2015. Pp. 38-68.

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